The Iberian Peninsula: History and Civilization

Posted on Oct 24, 2024 in History

The Historic Settlements: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians

In the first half of the first millennium BC, more advanced peoples, both materially and spiritually, reached the eastern peninsula. We call these peoples colonizers. They came for economic and commercial interests, since the peoples of the Mediterranean East were much more advanced and developed substantial trade in the Mediterranean, especially in metals like copper, tin, gold, and silver.

Phoenician colonization, primarily, had a commercial character, particularly attracted by the wealth of Tartessos. Many of their settlements were converted into thriving cities of commerce and industry. This is the case in places like Malaga, Almuñécar, Adra, and especially Cadiz.

The Greeks, from their colony of Massilia (Marseilles), founded several colonies on the Mediterranean coast from the sixth century BC. Emporion (Ampurias) and Rhode (Rosas) are noteworthy.

The Carthaginians, from Carthage, the Phoenician colony in modern Tunisia, created active colonies in Ibiza, whose commercial peak developed between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC, or Carthage.

The Visigothic Monarchy: Institutions

After the Visigothic defeat at the hands of the Franks at the Battle of Vouillé in 507, the Visigoths began their permanent settlement in the peninsula and imposed a form of government: the monarchy.

The monarchy was supported by various institutions, among which we highlight:

• The Palatine Officium: Formed by the management bodies in charge of the count of the clerks, the count of the stables, and the count of the treasure.
• Aula Regia: The king’s advisory council composed of senior officials of the Officium, important nobles, and high clergymen.
• Councils: The Visigoth kings attempted to control the assemblies of the bishops, proclaiming the king president and forcing them to be held in Toledo.

The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: The Emirate and Caliphate of Cordoba

Once conquered, most of the peninsula became a territory of the Muslim empire. In their political organization, two systems are distinguished: the Emirate and the Caliphate.

At first, the Emir depended on the Caliph of Damascus, both politically and religiously. Both the Emir and the Caliph belonged to the Umayyad family. The Emir was a delegate to the Caliph. In 750, the Abbasids killed the Umayyad family. From this moment, the Emirate of Cordoba declared independence, which meant independence from a political viewpoint, but with religious dependence. The first independent Emir of the Caliphate of Baghdad was Abd al-Rahman I. In 929, when the emirate became stronger, Abd-el-Rahman III declared himself Caliph, implying independence from Baghdad, both politically and religiously. At that time, Cordoba reached its peak.

The Taifa Kingdoms

In 1031, the stage of the Taifa kingdoms (small kingdoms which divided the Caliphate of Cordoba) began, characterized by weakness and constant fighting between them. The Taifa were run by descendants of rulers and warriors of the caliphate. There are three types:

• Taifa governed by the Slavs in the east
• The Taifa Berbers in the southeast
• Taifa directed by Arabs and Muladi (Christian converts to Islam) in the rest of the peninsula

Christian kings took advantage of the weak Taifa to force them to pay tributes (parias) and advance the Reconquista without effort. Faced with the political weakness of the Taifa period, it stands as a time of cultural and artistic wealth based more on creativity than on the wealth of materials. To prevent the fall of their kingdoms, the Taifa tried several times to enlist the aid of foreign Muslims in North Africa (Almoravids and Almohads), who managed to create short-lived empires in Al-Andalus. The last Taifa was the Nazari Kingdom of Granada, conquered by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492. The fall closes the Muslim presence in the Peninsula.

Main Stages of the Reconquista

The Reconquista is the advancement of local Christians in their fight against Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula.

1st Stage (8th-11th centuries): The Astur kingdom advances to the Duero and is renamed Astur-Leonese for its return of capital to Leon. Castile becomes independent and moves to the Ebro. Navarre emerges.

2nd Stage (11th-13th centuries): This is an unstable period. Portugal arises. Ferdinand I unifies Castile and Leon and advanced to the Tagus (implementing a Mozarabic repopulation). Navarre is divided between Castile and Aragon and is limited to the Ebro. Aragon annexed Sobrarbe and Ribagorza. In the 12th century, the Catalan counties expand to the Ebro.

3rd Stage (13th-15th centuries): Advance to the Guadalquivir (Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa). Extremadura and Castile conquer Murcia. Aragon conquers Valencia and the Balearic Islands and becomes a Mediterranean power. In the 15th century, only the Nazari kingdom of Granada remains, which pays tributes to the Catholic Monarchs, and in 1492, after 10 years of war, Muslims disappear from the peninsula, leaving a great influence in Spain.

The Middle Ages: Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis

The Late Middle Ages (14th and 15th centuries) is the final period of the Middle Ages, in which the expansionary phase of the High Middle Ages (11th-13th centuries) is interrupted, and we witness a profound general crisis marked by:

• The decline in agricultural production, due to a number of years of bad harvests, attributable to both climate change and the increasing acreage speculation that caused widespread hunger and malnutrition.
• The drastic decline in population caused by malnutrition and by the repeated impact of epidemics (Black Death 1348).
• Generalization of violent social conflicts, basically anti-seigneurial in character, in response to abuses.
• Generalization of wars and political conflicts between the various kingdoms in the peninsula and within each, between supporters of the political theories of wheeling and dealing and authoritarianism.

Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization

The Muslim economy was based on agriculture and trade. Agriculture achieved strong growth due to the introduction of new products (garden: carrots, eggplant, rice, cotton, sugar cane, etc.) and expanding and improving irrigation. Trade was a basic economic activity, distinguishing internal trade, which developed in the souks of cities, and foreign trade, which was of great importance, especially shipping (connecting east and west). Al-Andalus was linked to the territories of the Islamic empire and the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula as well as much of Europe.

The currency appreciated in Europe was the gold dinar. It was an urban society, tolerant and diverse.

Regarding social organization, one can speak of a slave society in which we can distinguish various groups:

• First, the Arab aristocracy and Hispanic-Visigoths (converts) who owned the best land and occupied the highest offices.
• Second, soldiers who owned land, and merchants, with less social consideration (Berbers).
• Third, freedmen (former slaves).
• And fourth, slaves, Africans and Slavs.

The Catholic Monarchs: The Conquest of the Nazari Kingdom

Castile (reinforced by the dynastic union of the Catholic Monarchs) conquered the Nazari Kingdom of Granada (1481-1492).

The causes of this conquest are the natural expansion of Castile to the south, the weakness of Granada due to internal dynastic struggles, and the desire of the Kings to spread Christianity. The immediate cause of the conquest is the capture of Alhama by Diego Ponce de León, thus beginning a war.

The war began with military operations to try to keep Alhama (1481-1484), the conquest of Malaga to cut communication lines and the aid they could receive from Africa, and holding Boabdil (last Nazari King) hostage (1484-1487).

Finally, the siege of Granada began, for which the fort and city of Santa Fe were built. In 1491, the war ended with the capitulation of Santa Fe by Boabdil, surrendering Granada to the Catholic Monarchs. This had cultural and religious uniformity (Catholic and Christian), economic consequences (negative for the expulsion of Muslims, good craftsmen and farmers), and political consequences. A strong army was formed (modern, organized by Ferdinand), subjecting the nobility and extending its fame throughout Christendom. The latter reason is why the Pope granted them the title of Catholic.

The Enlightenment in Spain

We understand the Enlightenment as the cultural, scientific, and ideological movement that spread throughout Europe during the 18th century and which claimed the modernization and reform of the political, economic, social, and cultural, but keeping intact the key to justify the political and social structure of the Old Regime.

The learned were a cultured minority formed by nobles, officials, burghers, and clergymen. They were basically interested in:

• Reform and economic recovery (concern about the useful sciences, improving the education system)
• Moderate critique of some aspects of social reality in the country
• Interest in liberal political ideas, though, for the most part, they did not support revolutionary approaches

Their reformist zeal led them into conflict with the Church and most of the aristocracy.

Traditionally, it has been pointed out the existence of four generations of illustrious Spaniards: Criticism (Feijoo), Erudite (Mayans), Reform (Campomanes), and Neoclassical (Jovellanos).

Sixteenth-Century Spain: Iberian Unity

In the 16th century, the kingdom of Portugal was one of the great European monarchies and may be considered the first example of a modern national monarchy.

In 1580, the throne of Portugal was left vacant when its sole heir died without descendants. Philip II, who was the son of Isabel of Portugal, asserted his rights and defeated the Portuguese army. But he did more: he won over the ruling class by promising to respect their autonomy, to ensure the protection of their trade, and used money to buy supporters. The courts recognized him as king in 1581. That meant the full realization of the Hispanic monarchy while implying control of its great maritime empire: Brazil and commercial enclaves in Africa and Asia. An empire “where the sun never set.”

Spain Under the Minor Habsburgs: The Validos

The time when Philip II was directly concerned in the government of the Monarchy was followed by a new phase in which Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II gave up personally performing the tasks of government, which passed into the hands of omnipotent ministers, the validos or privados. Consideration of governance as a useful tool for personal enrichment and family heritage, and overall, the low political stature of these validos, often led to deepening corruption and inefficient administration of the Crown.

Criticisms of this kind of government were abundant:

• The nobles, very influential in the councils (especially in the main one, that of State), protested when they were displaced by the validos or could not control them.
• The royal secretaries were suspicious of them and the families they placed in the administration.
• The popular classes identified them with the decline of the kingdom and misrule.

Organization and Policy in the Middle Ages: The Kingdom of Castile

The Late Middle Ages (13th-15th centuries) represents the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times. It is a time of profound political, social, and cultural changes, which ends with a serious crisis in the 14th century. In politics, the kings increase their power over the nobles in exchange for ceding territories. This is the beginning of the authoritarian monarchies that only succeed in Castile. The process begins with Alfonso X and is consolidated with the Trastámara dynasty.

In Castile, the monarchs create new institutions and standardize laws and privileges: they create the Chancillería Real (General Audience controlled by the lower nobility), establishing a unique code for the whole kingdom (the Ordenamiento de Alcalá). The monarchy is based on the Cortes (assembly) divided into estates (nobles, clergy, and people). Money is controlled by the Finance (Cuentas Reales), and a new trade tax is created: the sales tax. The administration is centralized, now controlled by a professional bureaucracy (Consejos). The local administration is headed by a Royal Council, and the kings appoint magistrates or mayors in cities. There is a standing army of mercenaries. The crisis of the 14th century leads them to expand into the Atlantic in search of new markets.

The Crisis of 1640

The 17th century is a century of crisis, and 1640 is the turning point. It is a political crisis, and the causes are the reforms of the Count-Duke of Olivares, who wanted to boost trade and crafts, achieve the real union of the kingdoms to unify the laws and eliminate the role of councils, and maintain hegemony abroad.

This led to wars. There were two rebellions: in Catalonia and Portugal.

In 1640, Catalonia was occupied by troops sent to war with France in 1635. In Barcelona, on Corpus Christi Day 1640, the peasants took the city. Barcelona offered the crown to Louis XIII of France. As a result, there are 12 years of wars culminating in the surrender of Catalonia (1652). France’s power increased, and Spain’s was weakened.

The revolt of Portugal in 1640 is a consequence of the Union of Arms and compulsory levies to quell the rebellion of Catalonia. It was a revolution led by the Duke of Braganza, who would become the new king. It lasted until 1668 and finally ended with the independence of Portugal. Spain’s expenses increased; it lost its hegemony and the reforms of the Count-Duke of Olivares failed.

Economic and Social Developments in the Seventeenth Century

The 17th century began with a demographic crisis that was compounded by a political crisis. Already in the first half of the century, demographic problems were serious: bad harvests, pestilence, famine and hunger, constant wars, and emigration to America. Castile was the most affected. In the second half, the crisis continued and deepened. There were serious difficulties in exporting, and the industry was unable to compete with foreign productions. The commercial result of the crisis was the decrease in the money supply.

Society remained hierarchical, but the number of nobles (who neither produce nor pay taxes) and the clergy increased, so that farmers were forced to pay very high taxes, and the number of marginals (thieves, beggars, and vagrants) increased.