The Iberian Peninsula in the Late Middle Ages
The Outreach: Italian and North African Politics
The RRCC monarchy had become a major political power in Europe. The foreign policy of the RRCC followed these guidelines: confrontation with France and alliance with surrounding countries to isolate it, integration of all peninsular territories, and maritime expansion in both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
Italian Politics
Italy was made up of many smaller states, rich and militarily weak, but with skillful diplomacy. The King of France, Charles VIII, wanted to dominate Naples to ensure the neutrality of the RRCC in returning Roussillon and Sardinia in 1493. He then invaded Naples, but the Italian states, supported by the RRCC, fought against France. Later, the Great Captain’s troops defeated the French at Cerignola and Garigliano (1503). From then on, Fernando sought balance and divided Italy with France: France controlled northern Italy (Milan and Venice), the Papal States controlled the center, and Aragon controlled the south (Naples and the islands).
North African Politics
After the conquest of Granada, the Spaniards carried out expeditions in North Africa to secure political and trade interests in the Mediterranean against Berbers and Turks, continuing the spirit of the crusade against the infidels. These expeditions occupied strategic ports and bases used for piracy: Melilla, Penon de Velez de la Gomera, Oran (Algeria), Bejaia (Algeria), and Tripoli (Libya).
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II: Iberian Unity
The foreign policy of Philip II sought above all to defend Catholicism. His victory over the French at San Quentin gave way to a long period of concord, as the Spanish Armada defeated the Turks at Lepanto. However, the most acute problem encountered by Philip II was the revolt of the Netherlands, where Calvinism had spread. The actions of the King’s messengers, including the Duke of Alba, did not prevent the division between the Protestant north and the Catholic south. Philip II also faced England, which protected the Protestants of the Netherlands and harassed the Spanish dominions in America. The Spanish fleet sent against the English (the Armada) failed.
Philip II also faced serious problems within his realms, such as the revolt of the Moors of Granada and having to limit the freedoms of Aragon with the execution of Juan de Lanuza, the Chief Justice. The union with Portugal also took place. Philip II claimed the Portuguese throne in 1580 against Antonio, Prior of Crato, who declared himself king in Santarem. An army under the Duke of Alba invaded Portugal and took Lisbon, defeating the Prior. Philip was then proclaimed king in the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, where he swore to respect the laws and customs of the kingdom. Portugal remained part of the Spanish Crown until 1640.
Social Organization in the Middle Ages
The basis of the wealth of the kingdoms was agriculture and livestock production. Subsistence agriculture was aimed primarily at consumption. In the Kingdom of Castile-Leon, farming grew in importance, especially with the advance of colonization to the Tagus, forming mestas that regulated transhumance.
Society was overwhelmingly rural, living in small villages that limited their crafts to trade with farmers in the area (local market). A special case were the towns along the Camino de Santiago.
In the Crown of Aragon, the move towards a cash economy (Mediterranean trade) accelerated. It was an agrarian society, but in the eleventh century, urban development began. The cities became markets. By the end of the twelfth century, certain cities had adopted a clear mercantile and manufacturing profile, with a nascent commercial bourgeoisie.
The Kingdoms of Castile and Leon in the Late Middle Ages
In Castile, the monarchy (alongside it: the Court, which was composed of the great officers, including the butler and the notary) was less feudal, and the King enjoyed more extensive powers, giving less importance to the Cortes. The Cortes had an advisory role and approved grants. They were the heirs of the Curia Regia, which was attended by nobles and clergy, until new delegates from the cities and towns (bourgeoisie) were introduced. The first Cortes took place in Leon (1188), followed by the Cortes of the Kingdom of Castile, and the institution was unified with the merger of Leon and Castile.
The territory was divided into Merindades, to which Adelantamientos were added (thirteenth century), which included newly incorporated territories: Andalusia and Murcia. Locally, the essential organ of government was the council.
The Crown of Aragon in the Late Middle Ages
At the head of the Crown of Aragon was the king, but given the diversity of territories, there were figures representing the king (king’s lieutenants) in the various regional centers. The royal power in Aragon was pactista; it was necessary to reach an agreement with the powerful before making any decision.
In the thirteenth century, courts were born, first in Catalonia and then in Aragon and later in Valencia. Each territory maintained its own courts, although on occasion, the general courts of the entire Crown met.
Aragon was divided into merindades and Catalonia into vegueries. The local governing body was the municipality (e.g., Barcelona, composed of the Consell de Cent (Council of One Hundred), the municipal councilors, and magistrates). The importance of the Justice of Aragon should be noted. This was a member of the nobility appointed by the Court to interpret and defend the privileges against the monarch.