The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Christian Kingdoms, Reconquista, and Culture
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: The Christian Kingdoms
The First Centers of Resistance
Muslim dominance wasn’t complete on the Iberian Peninsula. Independent Christian centers emerged in the northern regions, areas with Roman and Christian heritage. These inhabitants, grouped into tribes, were largely ignored by the Muslims, who saw the area as having little value. The first Christian kingdom, Asturias, arose between 718 and 722 when Pelayo, a local leader, defeated the Muslims at Covadonga. He established his court there and expanded eastward and westward. During Alfonso II’s reign (791-842), the court moved to Oviedo, Visigothic law was restored, and a local Catholic Church was organized.
Along the border between al-Andalus and the Franks, Pyrenean states emerged. The Kingdom of Pamplona, in the western Pyrenees, gained independence in 905 under Sancho I. In the central Pyrenees, the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza formed by the eleventh century. In the eastern Pyrenees, numerous counties arose, but Wilfred I, Count of Barcelona, established his dominance over the others in 878.
Main Stages of the Reconquista
The Christian kingdoms gradually reclaimed territory from al-Andalus. This process accelerated with the fall of the Caliphate and the rise and fall of the Almoravid and Almohad empires. The peninsular kingdoms emerged and solidified between the mid-eighth and ninth centuries. During this period, al-Andalus held hegemony, and the Christian kingdoms endured Muslim raids (aceifas).
Over time, these Christian kingdoms united and consolidated, forming Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. They conquered territories along major rivers, first the Tagus and Ebro valleys, then the Guadalquivir and Guadiana. They benefited from Muslim pariahs, contributing to economic and population growth, which fueled further expansion.
The Christian victory at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (Jaén) in 1212 marked a turning point, demonstrating Christian superiority. The Guadalquivir and Guadiana valleys fell under Christian control, and throughout the thirteenth century, they continued to conquer Muslim lands, leaving only the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, which lasted until 1492.
Land Occupation and Social Structure
Christian repopulation involved establishing colonies in reconquered territories. In the initial phase, the southern Douro Valley was repopulated, with walled cities primarily inhabited by Christians. The Tagus Valley, initially home to Muslims, Jews, and Christians, became exclusively Christian after the Almoravids’ defeat. In the Ebro Valley, the Muslim (Mozarab) population remained, largely residing outside city walls.
Later, permanent military camps were established for defense, and military orders were created. In the final phase, some Muslim populations remained, while others were eliminated. Repopulation involved land distribution systems, rewarding those who participated in the Reconquista.
Post-Reconquista society was feudal, with distinct social strata:
- Nobility: Divided into high and low, they owned land and held manorial rights, responsible for their subjects’ safety.
- Clergy: Divided into upper and lower, their role was prayer. They received tithes (one-tenth of the harvest) and were exempt from taxes.
- Third Estate: Primarily peasants, they worked the land, served in the military, and bore the tax burden. With the eleventh-century economic expansion, the bourgeoisie emerged, engaged in trade and crafts.
Cultural Diversity: Christians, Muslims, and Jews
Two marginalized minorities, Muslims (Moors) and Jews, coexisted with Christians. Moors under Christian rule paid taxes. Concentrated in the Ebro Valley and Valencia, they represented a significant portion of the population. Despite their cultural contributions, they faced intolerance and prejudice due to their perceived lower wealth.
Jews lived in cities, specializing in medicine, commerce, finance, crafts, and jewelry making, creating economic dependencies. They controlled indirect taxes and customs and practiced usury (lending money with interest), further fueling Christian resentment. They faced violence and massacres, culminating in 1391, leading to mass emigration and conversions. Despite royal protection (often for financial reasons), they were confined to separate quarters called juderías.
Art in the Peninsula: Romanesque and Gothic
The military and economic expansion of the Christian kingdoms fostered the emergence of Romanesque art in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, influenced by international styles along the Camino de Santiago. Romanesque architecture featured barrel vaults, thick walls, and sturdy pillars, exemplified by monasteries and cathedrals like the Cathedral of Santiago. Romanesque painting, primarily religious and narrative, and sculpture, often in ivory and integrated with architecture, also flourished.
From the thirteenth century, the French-influenced Gothic style emerged. Gothic architecture emphasized pointed arches, ribbed vaults, verticality, and light, seen in cathedrals like Burgos, León, and Toledo in Castile, and Barcelona, Girona, and Menorca in Aragon. Gothic painting, often on wood panels, showed French influence, as seen in the Cantigas de Santa Maria miniatures. Gothic sculpture, both decorative and religious, featured naturalism and emotional expression, notably in Virgin and Child and Pietà figures.
Mudejar art, blending Romanesque and Gothic elements with Islamic influences, also developed, using materials like plaster and brick.