The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Kingdoms, Expansion, and Conflicts
1. Consolidation of the Hispanic Kingdoms
The Patrimonial Kingdoms
In the Middle Ages, kings were believed to be chosen by God to govern their kingdoms according to divine wishes. Kings considered their realms as personal inheritances.
The Crown of Castile
Castile and León were united under Ferdinand III. Later, Castile and Aragon would also join definitively.
Kingdom of Portugal
The Kingdom of Portugal emerged from the Kingdom of Castile when Afonso Henriques declared independence and took the title of king.
Kingdom of Navarre
In the twelfth century, the Kingdom of Pamplona became the Kingdom of Navarre.
The Formation of the Crown of Aragon
Petronilla, daughter of the King of Aragon, married Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona. Alfonso II of Aragon became the first king of the Crown of Aragon, a state formed from the union of Aragon and the County of Barcelona.
2. Expansion in the 12th Century
In the latter half of the twelfth century, the Christian kingdoms confronted the Almohads, defeating them at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).
Reconquest and Repopulation
In Castile, Muslim lands were incorporated into the kingdom. In Aragon, land was given to nobles. Mudejars, Muslims who remained in Christian territories, were allowed to keep their religion and laws. Many became serfs of nobles and clergy. In the Balearic Islands, Muslims remained in Valencia. Aragon occupied the interior while Catalans inhabited the coastal areas.
3. Governing Institutions
Monarchy
In Castile, the king held significant power. In Aragon, the king’s authority was more limited.
Courts
Castilian courts had an advisory role. Aragonese courts held more power, including legislative authority.
Municipalities
In Aragon, cities held commercial and craft power, with councils representing the bourgeoisie. In Castile, open councils were replaced by representative councils, eventually dominated by the nobility.
4. The Kingdom of Castile: Economy and Society
Livestock and Agriculture
Castile’s economy relied on agriculture (oil, wine, wheat) and livestock, particularly merino sheep and wool. The Mesta was an association of Castilian sheep farmers.
Wool Trade
Wool was traded at fairs in Castile (Burgos, Medina del Campo) and transported to Cantabrian ports for export to Flanders.
The Power of the Nobility
Royal conquests expanded noble domains and lordships. Transhumance, the seasonal movement of livestock, was practiced.
5. The Crown of Aragon: Economy and Society
A Diversified Economy
Sheep farming was important, but not as developed as in Castile. Irrigated agriculture thrived in Valencia. Handicrafts (textiles, metallurgy, shipbuilding) and maritime trade flourished.
Mediterranean Trade Routes
Trade routes connected Aragon with Sardinia, Sicily, the Aegean Sea, the Byzantine Empire, and North Africa. Consuls represented merchants and resolved disputes.
Military Conquests
Aragon conquered Sicily, Sardinia, Athens, and Neopatria. Almogavar mercenaries controlled the duchies of Athens and Neopatria, which remained Aragonese vassals until the late 14th century.
The Rise of the Bourgeoisie
Nobility and clergy were major landowners, living off peasant labor. The Mediterranean expansion was supported by the bourgeoisie, who provided resources and equipment.
6. Social and Political Conflicts
Economic and Social Crisis
Declining incomes led nobles to expand their domains and impose new taxes on peasants, leading to conflicts.
Conflicts in Castile
Peter I of Castile aimed to develop textile production from wool. Subsequent monarchs faced noble rebellions and civil wars.
Conflicts in Aragon
Following the death of King Martin in 1410, representatives from Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia chose Ferdinand of Antequera as king in 1412. Peasant struggles against merchants and artisans, fueled by economic crisis, led to civil war (1462-1472) between the Catalan oligarchy and King John II, who was supported by the remensas (peasants seeking freedom from feudal obligations). The crisis less severely impacted other Aragonese territories, and Valencia experienced economic growth.
7. Gothic Art in the Iberian Peninsula
Architecture
Two main Gothic styles: Cistercian Gothic (southern) and French Gothic (northern). Examples include Burgos Cathedral, León Cathedral, and Santa Maria del Mar in Barcelona.
Sculpture
Notable examples include the Puerta del Sarmental and the Virgen Blanca at León Cathedral.
Painting
Castilian miniature art dominated Gothic painting, exemplified by the Cantigas de Santa Maria of Alfonso X. Other notable artists include Lluís Dalmau (Virgin of the Councillors), Jaume Huguet, and Bartolomé Bermejo.