The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Muslim Conquest to Taifa Kingdoms
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: The Muslim Conquest and Invaders
In 711, Islamized Arab and Berber groups entered the Iberian Peninsula. They eliminated the Visigoth kingdom, laid the foundations for new economic and social structures, and named the territory Al-Andalus.
In April 711, a Berber army under the command of Tarik, a lieutenant of the Arab governor Musa, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. Two months later, at the Battle of Guadalete, they defeated Don Rodrigo (Visigoth king). Three years later, with little resistance, they secured control of the Peninsula.
Unlike the Visigoths, who tried to impose their political dominance throughout the peninsula, the Muslim conquerors settled at certain strategic points and settled for controlling the rest.
The Invaders:
- The Berbers: From North Africa, they were mostly shepherds and settled in the foothills of the Sierras.
- The Arabs: From Arabia and Syria, they were city dwellers. They managed agricultural operations using sharecropping, a new type of contract signed between the landowner and the worker, where both shared the products. The cities attracted merchants and craftsmen.
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: The Emirate and Caliphate of Córdoba
The Emirate:
In 756, Abd ar-Rahman I was proclaimed emir. The territory was divided into districts called Cora, led by Arab sheiks. To ensure communications, a series of fortified outposts were built along the roads.
The border between Muslims and Christians was fluid and had great mobility. To protect it, the Muslims organized three sectors with capitals in Zaragoza, Toledo, and Mérida. The bulk of the army remained at the gates of Córdoba under the emir’s orders, due to the threat posed by his provincial governors and the Christians.
In 778, the Muslim governor of Zaragoza asked for help from Charlemagne, King of the Franks, to fight Abd ar-Rahman I. The emir’s swift reaction allowed him to control the situation, resulting in severe repression of the population of the Ebro Valley.
Abd ar-Rahman I’s control ensured territorial control, tax collection, and the first fruits of Islamization. Within the process of Islamization, two facts were evident:
- Population growth of cities in Al-Andalus.
- Rapid conversion of Visigoths to Islam. The converts were called muladíes.
Between 788 and 822, significant tensions arose due to the muladíes‘ unfulfilled hopes of achieving promised equality. The most explosive events took place in Toledo and Córdoba. In Toledo, a more political crisis resulted in the “Day of the Moat” in 797. In Córdoba, a more social crisis exploded in 818 with the “Mutiny of the Suburbs”, ending with the exile of thousands, mostly Mozarabic (Christians living in the Muslim population).
Later, during the emirate of Abd al-Rahman II, the organization of the state was completed. The chosen model was the court of the Caliph of Baghdad. The emir was no longer a tribal sheikh but a ruler with absolute power. During his reign, new cities were created, a navy was built, and trade and artistic relationships were strengthened.
Abd al-Rahman II’s death coincided with an economic and political crisis due to the dissatisfaction of three groups:
- Arabs: They did not accept the emir’s transformation into an Oriental despot.
- Mozarabic (Christians living in the Muslim population): Many young Christians embraced Islamic culture with enthusiasm. A feeling of anger and impotence pushed some Mozarabic leaders to insult Muhammad and Islam.
- Muladi: They were still unhappy because the Muslims had not fulfilled their promises.
The Caliphate of Córdoba:
This discontent continued until Abd al-Rahman III came to the throne in 912. He focused on restoring order: containing the Christians, ensuring Umayyad power in Zaragoza, and controlling the independent muladíes leaders. By 929, he achieved his goals and declared himself caliph. The caliphate meant the religious and political independence of Al-Andalus, with its capital in Córdoba.
During the 10th century, the Caliphs of Córdoba ensured:
- Wealth: through tax collection, control of gold mines, and the collection of tributes.
- Military strength:
On these bases, the Caliphate of Abd al-Rahman III and his son Al-Hakam II flourished. When Al-Hakam II died, the Hachib or prime minister, Mansur, took control of the state, establishing a dictatorship. When Mansur died, his regime barely survived, and in 1031, the Caliphate of Córdoba disappeared.
The Crisis of the 11th Century: The Taifa Kingdoms
When the Caliphate of Córdoba ended in 1031, it fragmented into about twenty Taifa kingdoms. Mansur’s disappearance marked the beginning of the crisis. The most powerful Taifa kingdoms (Zaragoza, Toledo, Seville, and Badajoz) were ruled by Arabs and Muladi. Others were ruled by slaves and Berbers.
The Christian kings took advantage of the Taifa kingdoms’ weakness. They demanded tributes and threatened with raids, effectively controlling them. This demanded an economic effort from the Taifa kingdoms, which burdened their subjects with new taxes and active trade. The Aljafería Palace of Zaragoza and the works of many poets bear witness to the splendor of the 11th century.