The Iberian Peninsula: Reconquest, Expansion, and Dynastic Union
Forms of Land Use and Its Influence on Ownership
Models of Recruitment and Social Organization
Parallel to the territorial expansion, a double process took place: the repopulation of conquered lands and the socio-political development of new states. Unlike the primitive core of Biscay and the Pyrenees, where soil characteristics imposed a fragile economy, the newly conquered areas were river valleys, suitable for extensive agriculture. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, a process of population growth and occupation of these lands occurred. While in the Crown of Aragon, the nobility took control of Aragon and Valencia, reducing the peasants into servitude and limiting the authority of kings, Castile’s restocking needs forced the Crown to provide important privileges to settlers through charters, guaranteeing freedom and land to those who moved to the dangerous border areas. This explains the organization of the Douro Valley in fortified towns with large areas around them (alfoces). Nuclei of peasant warriors and knights-villain arose, a status granted to all Castilian peasants. The monarchy would rely on them and their councils to oppose the growing economic power of the nobility and the Church. However, from the thirteenth century onward, a vast expanse of land between Toledo and the Mediterranean was incorporated. The occupation occurred through the mass appropriation of large estates for the nobility, the Church, and the military orders as payment for services rendered during the conquest.
Main Stages of the Reconquest
The initial expansion of the early northern kingdoms stopped in the mid-tenth century due to the rise of the Caliphate of Cordoba, while foreshadowing the future expansive realms: Leon, Castile, Navarre, and the French count. With the disintegration of the Caliphate in 1031, the territorial expansion of the Christians resumed, reaching the Tagus line under the impetus of Castile and Aragon. After the interruption caused by the arrival of the Almoravids, the second stage of the Reconquista began with the conquest of the Taifas. The twelfth century witnessed the strength of the two great Christian kingdoms, Castile-Leon and the Kingdom of Aragon, and land expansion in the south-central and eastern peninsula. The allocation of territory dominated by each kingdom, established in the covenants of Cazola and Tudilén, allowed the process to consolidate and increase achievement. The victory over the Almohads in Navas de Tolosa (1212) opened the door for Castile to gradually occupy the lands of the last Andalusian Taifas, and allowed Aragon to complete control over their territories and the Balearics. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, the only Muslim territory remaining in the peninsula was the Kingdom of Granada, which survived thanks to onerous taxes paid to the Castilian kingdom. Its capitulation in 1492, under pressure from the Catholic Monarchs, marked the end of the Reconquista.
Atlantic Routes: Spanish and Portuguese. The Canary Islands.
Castile’s interest in the Atlantic was largely due to economic reasons. The North Atlantic route was the main export route to European markets and the natural way to import luxury goods. The southern route, via Seville-Cadiz, provided access to African products. The union between the two routes generated a dense network of trade fairs (Medina del Campo) and significant benefits for merchants and the Crown. To protect the South Atlantic route, Tarifa (1292), Algeciras (1344), and Gibraltar were taken. The Portuguese, Castile’s main rivals, colonized Madeira, the Azores, and the West African coast to open a new Atlantic route along the African continent to bring them to the Indies and oriental spices. The Canary Islands were a target for Portugal due to the constant presence of pirates and sailors (Lusos, Genoese, Andalusians, Basques, and Mallorcans) from the fourteenth century. However, the Castilian kings took the lead and established the Canary Islands, inhabited by the Guanches, as an excellent base of operations and supply for shipping. Several expeditions allowed the Norman adventurer Jean de Bethencourt to conquer Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (later colonizing Gomera and El Hierro). Until the late fifteenth century, Castile and Portugal vied for dominance of the so-called Fortunate Islands. From there, Christopher Columbus began his voyage to the New World.
Dynastic Union: Integration of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon
In January 1475, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon reached an agreement, the Concordia de Segovia, which established the future system of government in both realms. This alliance, stemming from their marriage in 1469, strengthened Isabella’s claim to the Castilian throne. The victory in 1479 against the Iberian coalition (formed by the Castilian nobility in favor of Juana la Beltraneja, Portugal, and France) led to the Dynastic Union. In practice, both monarchs had equal decision-making power in Castile, and royal orders were signed by both. However, Ferdinand was only king consort, with Isabella retaining exclusive inheritance rights. In Aragon, laws only allowed Ferdinand to be king, but the decree of 1481 granted Isabella regency. The Dynastic Union maintained the borders, laws, institutions, and peculiarities of both kingdoms. The only common body was the Inquisition. There was no intention to merge the kingdoms, and all political action aimed to transmit all kingdoms to their successors as multiple inheritances, not as a unified state. Castile played a hegemonic role due to its size, population, and resources. Castilian also emerged as the predominant language.