The Iberian Peninsula: Roman Conquest and Reconquista
The Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and Romanization
Stages of the Conquest
Conquest of the East and South (218-197 BC)
The Roman conquest began during the Second Punic War against Carthage. Carthaginian settlements in the Iberian Peninsula served as bases for attacks on Rome. The Roman victory at Ilipa in 209 BC ended Carthaginian presence and established Roman rule in the east and south.
Conquest of the Central and West (155-133 BC)
Roman expansion faced resistance from local populations, notably the Lusitanian Wars led by Viriato (155-136 BC) and the Celtiberian resistance at Numantia until its fall in 133 BC. Roman civil wars, such as the conflict between Pompey and Caesar (49-45 BC), played out in the peninsula and accelerated Roman control.
Conquest of the North (29-19 BC)
Under Augustus, the first Roman emperor, the conquest concluded with the subjugation of Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque Country (Cantabrian Wars). The capture of Tarraco (Tarragona) in 218 BC marked the beginning of the conquest.
Key Aspects of Romanization
Romanization refers to the assimilation of Roman culture, society, politics, and economy by the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula. This process began with the conquest. Roman legions established military camps that evolved into cities. New cities like Emerita Augusta (Mérida) and Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza) were founded, and existing ones like Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), and Malacca (Málaga) were incorporated. Hispania, a Roman colony, primarily exported raw materials and imported manufactured goods, earning it the nickname “Rome’s breadbasket.”
Latin became the official language, and Roman law replaced existing legal systems. Some indigenous people gained Roman citizenship, a right extended to all free inhabitants of the empire by Emperor Caracalla in 212 AD. Christianity arrived during the Roman period and gained a strong following. Hispania contributed significant figures to Roman politics and culture, including emperors Trajan and Hadrian and the philosopher Seneca from Cordoba.
The Reconquista and the First Christian Kingdoms
Reconquista and Repopulation
The Reconquista (8th-15th centuries) was the military and political process by which Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula fought to reclaim territory from Muslim rule, aiming to restore the Christian unity lost with the Visigothic kingdom’s fall. The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon played leading roles.
Repopulation, the resettlement of lands reclaimed from Muslim control, was integral to the Reconquista. Population growth in Christian centers fueled this movement. Land distribution varied by region and time period, with different methods employed: Presura (9th-10th centuries, north of the Duero River), Repartimientos (11th-12th centuries), and Donadios (grants of large estates by the crown, primarily to nobility and military orders, used in the Ebro Valley, Toledo, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and Andalusian cities).
Chronology of the Kingdoms (until the 13th Century)
Christian kingdoms emerged in the 8th century in the northern mountainous regions, founded by Visigothic remnants and local populations. These included Asturias (considered the Visigothic successor), Catalonia (part of the Frankish Marca Hispanica), Navarre (influenced by Basque populations), and Aragon.
These kingdoms consolidated their territories until the 11th century, occupying lands abandoned by Muslims up to the Duero-Ebro line. They developed feudal systems with stratified societies: nobility enjoyed privileges, the Church provided cultural and ideological support, and peasants were largely tied to the land. The economy was primarily agricultural and self-sufficient. Kings gained power, particularly in Castile, by coordinating the Reconquista.
Following the Caliphate’s collapse and the rise of Taifa kingdoms, Christians advanced against the Almoravids and Almohads, with Castile taking the lead. Castile occupied central Iberia, experiencing internal conflicts and union with Leon. Aragon, after its expansion into southern France was halted by the Albigensian Crusade, began Mediterranean conquests under Alfonso II and James I, culminating in the Catalan-Aragonese Confederation. By the 13th century, Castile-Leon became dominant, limiting Portuguese and Aragonese expansion. Navarre remained landlocked, while Aragon focused on Mediterranean expansion, particularly in Italy.
From the 13th century, the Reconquista slowed, with Granada remaining under Muslim rule. Aragon expanded beyond the peninsula. After resolving internal medieval issues, Castile conquered Granada in 1492, concluding the Reconquista.