The Impact of Revolutions on Society and Economy
U.S. Residents: Residents of the 13 English colonies were unhappy with the mother country not allowing them representation in the English Parliament, forcing them to pay taxes and imposing a trade monopoly over its territory. In 1773, they were granted a monopoly on the sale of tea, which led to their displeasure being shown by attacking a ship, ultimately causing the revolution. In 1776, the members of the 13 colonies drafted the Declaration of Independence for the United States, which was not realized until George Washington was proclaimed president. The U.S. drafted the first written constitution, ensuring separation and balance.
Liberalism: Liberalism is a set of ideas that formed the basis of the political systems created by the bourgeois revolutions of the nineteenth century. It settled on broad principles, asserting that society is formed by individuals, not estates, and defends the right of all human beings to freedom. It advocates for all areas of human activity: economic, political, religious, and intellectual, while respecting the freedom of others.
The Agricultural Revolution: A series of changes in agriculture increased production and allowed for the survival of the population. It led to the law of enclosure, which forced landowners to close their properties, causing peasants to migrate to cities. There were three major agricultural innovations: changes in the cropping system, the spread of crop rotation, and the introduction of new planting methods, tools, crops, and fertilizers. These advances resulted in a significant increase in the population.
The Development of Industry: Changing production systems were characterized by the use of machines and the replacement of animate labor with inanimate sources. These changes resulted in the concentration of workers for production.
The Cotton Industry: This new fabric was ruining the wool industry, leading to a ban on the import of cotton from India. Great Britain began to produce its own cotton.
Coal and Iron: Coal became the major fuel of the nineteenth century, thanks to innovations in mining that resulted in increased production. By the middle of the eighteenth century, coal replaced charcoal as the primary mineral fuel.
New Transportation: In the eighteenth century, the railroad was created, causing a revolution in transportation due to its speed, capacity, lower cost, and safety. In the early nineteenth century, the steam engine was applied to maritime navigation, creating steamboats.
The Market Momentum: The improvement of infrastructure and transportation allowed a shift from subsistence to a market economy.
The Industrialization of the Continent: In the late eighteenth century, the industrialization process spread across the continent, including the U.S. and Japan.
Causes: In France, in the late eighteenth century, following the American Revolution, the French sought significant change. The bourgeoisie was becoming wealthier, but they had to pay taxes as they were not privileged. Encouraged by Enlightenment ideas, they demanded political changes. A serious economic crisis had injured the living conditions of farmers due to increased tax burdens, and poor harvests left many families destitute. France was in a serious crisis, and the privileged refused to pay taxes.
Call for General Statements: Calonne, the French minister, proposed that the nobility contribute to paying taxes. The nobility opposed this, claiming it could only approve new tax burdens, which caused a serious political crisis and led Louis XVI to call elections.
The Break: General statements were made at Versailles, where there were three estates, and each estate had one vote. The privileged estates always won due to having two votes, but the Third Estate, representing 90% of the population, demanded to vote by head. The king and the privileged opposed this, and general statements were suspended. Representatives of the Third Estate constituted themselves as the National Assembly, taking to the streets in agitation. The Estates-General became a constituent general assembly. Before the rumor spread that the king had concentrated 20,000 soldiers in Paris, the National Assembly attacked the Bastille, which ignited the revolution throughout France.
National Constituent Assembly: Members of the National Constituent Assembly proceeded to legally abolish feudalism. The estates, personal servitude, tithes, rents, and manorial justice were abolished. They approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, asserting that all Frenchmen are equal before the law, empowering the people. In 1791, a constitution was approved that protected the constitutional monarchy.
Restoration: This was a political system designed by the victorious powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain) to restore absolutism and prevent new revolutions.
Parliament: This was a limitation of royal power, consisting of representatives from the three estates. It had taxation powers, such as voting on new taxes, and could meet with the king in exceptional cases.
Guilds: Guilds were groups of artisans from the same trade, which controlled the volume of production, the techniques used, and the sales price.
Crisis of Subsistence: Poor harvests set the tempo of the economy, leading to food shortages and increased commodity prices.
Sovereignty: This designates the source of power. In absolutism, it resided with the king. From 1789 onward, sovereignty resided in the nation for all citizens, whose collective will is the sovereign national will.
Constitutional Monarchy: This is a monarchy in which real power is limited by a constitution drafted and approved by parliament.