The Impact of the 19th Century on Art and Architecture

Posted on Dec 6, 2024 in Arts and Humanities

ITEM 11 In the nineteenth century, the Contemporary Era begins, following the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, which turn France and Britain into the most important European sources, both historical and artistic. From a political perspective, the fundamental restoration of the monarchy occurs after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the year of Napoleon’s defeat, along with the bourgeois revolutions in 1820, 1830, and 1845, and the expansion of world imperialism and Western colonialism. England is confirmed as the first European state, coinciding with the long reign of Queen Victoria I, while absolutism is implanted in Spain under Fernando VII. Italy and Germany achieve their unification. France experiences different political regimes: the restored monarchy of Louis XVIII, the conservative regime of Charles X, the Revolution of 1830, and the liberal monarchy of Louis Philippe de Orleans, followed by the 1845 Revolution and the establishment of the Second Republic, which gives way to the Second Empire under Napoleon III. This stage brings great stability and significant economic development. After the French defeat against Prussia, the Third Republic is proclaimed, characterized by its secular and bourgeois nature. All these events unfold directly alongside the Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the late 18th century. As a result, cities grow considerably, with many people leaving the countryside to work under harsh conditions in factories located in the suburbs, where working-class neighborhoods emerge, often lacking basic urban planning. Communications improve and expand, laying the groundwork for a type of imperialist colonial expansion in the second half of the nineteenth century, not only economically exploiting new territories but also dominating them politically to generate major world powers. Europe and America divide Asia, Africa, and Oceania. The changes caused by the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution involve a new way of living and thinking, as well as a decisive influence from inventions such as photography, which transforms visual perception and aids many artists, while also becoming a powerful rival, especially for painting. The end result is a final break with tradition in favor of progress, leading to a series of movements, particularly in painting, that evolve rapidly. Paris becomes the European capital of the nineteenth century.

Pintura: Romanticismo

Romanticism is a cultural movement that, in the first half of the nineteenth century, reacted strongly against the prevailing academism, especially against Neoclassicism, directing its attention to other issues, particularly those relating to the Middle Ages and the national past, often treated with passion and idealism. The Romantic taste emphasizes the exotic and the expression of intense feelings. Fantasy replaces reason. Doubts arise regarding whether classical antiquity was the only valid source of inspiration, leading to a newfound appreciation for other styles, especially those from the Middle Ages. The term ‘romantic,’ first used in England in the seventeenth century, derives from the French ‘roman’ or ‘romance,’ which referred to medieval legends told in vernacular language. The exaltation of patriotic romanticism was a response to Napoleon’s imperial ambitions, which sought to subdue European countries. The nineteenth century confirms the supremacy of feeling, characterized by:

• Positive value of religions, folk traditions, customs, and primitive passions.
• Interest in non-Western civilizations and cultures, which are seen as exotic and picturesque.
• Affirmation of the historic personality of each country.
• Recovery of the suggestive power of color.
• Vibrant chromaticism enhanced by light.
• Dynamic compositions marked by convulsive positions and dramatic gestures.
• Exaltation of passionate expression.
• Cult of the landscape.
• Spontaneity in color application and loose brushwork.
• Religious painting recedes into the background.

Gericault, an engraver and portrait artist, is known for the strong expression in his works, often inspired by real events of great impact, elevating them to a heroic status. Delacroix draws inspiration from writers such as Shakespeare and Lord Byron, as well as exotic themes from his travels to the East and Morocco. He admired Goya. Landscape painting during Romanticism acquires new dignity, primarily developed in England by great landscape artists. Impressionist painting existed since the eighteenth century in France, particularly in the official Salons, where painters were invited to exhibit their works, which were hung at the discretion of the jury, often rejecting those that did not conform to academic standards. In the Salon of 1863, many works were rejected. Napoleon III approved the opening of another hall, known as the Salon of Rejected Works. This same year, MANET exhibited in this hall, scandalizing French society but astonishing a group of young painters who opposed the Academy’s premises. From this date, these painters began to connect, and by the early 1870s, the Impressionist movement truly began. This movement, purely pictorial, took place in Paris between 1874 and 1886, encompassing many artists who shared a fundamental concern for capturing the values of light and atmosphere in the landscape. It led to a free, shiny, and bright painting style, contrasting with the difficult times France was experiencing. The first exhibition was held in the studios of the photographer Nadar, where the term ‘Impressionist’ was coined, particularly by the newspaper reports of critic Louis Leroy, who mockingly used the title of Monet’s painting ‘Impression, Sunrise’ to categorize the artists’ work. Common features of Impressionism include:

• The subject is not the main focus of the paintings, although there is a clear preference for landscapes, nature, and open air.
• Efforts to capture momentary impressions of nature, generally painted outdoors.
• The drawing disappears.
• Free technique of loose brushstrokes.
• Light and color are the protagonists of Impressionist painting.
• Pure tone painting, with colors juxtaposed on the canvas rather than mixed on the palette.
• Colors are applied directly to the canvas.
• Reduced pure palettes, utilizing primary and secondary colors, while also taking advantage of complementary colors.
• Rapid brush sizes.
• Techniques used include oil, watercolor, and pastel.
• The study of perspective and volume is not a priority.

Despite these general characteristics, each individual artist’s path evolves, asserting their own vision and personality. Impressionism can be considered a pictorial movement of transition between traditional painting and contemporary art, marking a landmark of modern avant-garde. MANET, often regarded as the forerunner of Impressionism, never considered himself an Impressionist and refused to exhibit with them, yet his later works align with the movement. His revolutionary character attracted the attention of young Impressionist painters due to:

• His interest in everyday life, scenes, and people, without moralizing intent.
• His technical progress in painting with minimal shadows and little importance placed on line.

Monet, the quintessential Impressionist painter, was born in Paris and belonged to the so-called pure Impressionist group. He established his workshop in Argenteuil, where he developed a mid-air painting style characterized by bright, fresh colors, aiming to reproduce nature as a mere visual spectacle. The central theme of his work is light, particularly its reflections on water. RENOIR, considered by many to be part of the Impressionist group while excluded by others, has distinguishing features that set him apart:

• His focus on people, characters, and portraits, especially of happy and beautiful women.
• He embodies the joy of living, making him one of the most popular artists in the group.
• Unlike others, he did not create mid-air paintings but completed works in progress, similar to Signac and Seurat, who employed a technique called Divisionism or Pointillism, applying colors in small dots or short strokes to create a mosaic-like effect.

Degas is another debated figure, considered by many to be an Impressionist while rejected by others. His characteristics include:

• A strong interest in capturing the instant.
• A love for the human figure.
• A preference for urban scenes over rural ones, especially spectacles within the city.
• Capturing moments from inside venues.
• Using shadows and lines to define the contours of human forms.
• A focus on the instant of motion.

Post-Impressionism and 19th Century Architecture

In the late nineteenth century, innovations spread rapidly across countries, leading to the disappearance of national styles characteristic of previous centuries. Post-Impressionism does not correspond to a single style but rather encompasses a set of different attitudes towards nature, the centerpiece of Impressionist painting. This period, roughly defined between 1886 and 1907, includes numerous artists, almost all French, who developed their work during these twenty years. They are termed Post-Impressionists because they were formed in Impressionism but drifted towards more personal styles, recovering the definition of form through drawing and emphasizing the expressiveness of objects and people. VAN GOGH, a troubled individual, mixed existential anguish with great religious zeal, leading to insanity, self-mutilation, and suicide at age 37. His tormented personality is expressed through a rolling brush, becoming more intense over the years, and he utilized pure colors. Brilliant color is always the protagonist of his paintings, with thick brush strokes of contrasting pure colors. Vivid colors, particularly reds and yellows, predominate. He achieves spatial depth using longer brush strokes to separate the foreground from the background, with forms overflowing with paint, distorting reality. His art reflects a personal and intimate search for answers to life’s questions, providing comfort to the desperate and afflicted. CEZANNE’s brush strokes are impressionistic, but his primary concern is composition, seeking essential forms in nature, represented by geometric shapes: cone, sphere, or cylinder. His obsession with composition leads to a constructivist stage, breaking objects down into thousands of small planes, each with a distinct color. For him, the picture is relatively flat, focusing on contours rather than depth. This study of the subject from all angles forces a break from traditional perspective, establishing him as the father of modern art. GAUGUIN sought to express internal feelings that external reality did not manifest. His compositions gradually adopted naive forms, using bright colors, contrasts, and flat designs, often outlined with dark lines. He was drawn to exotic environments and prehistoric art in Tahiti, finding the right atmosphere to complete his work. His main features include symbolism, a rejection of perspective and shadows, exotic themes, and well-defined colors. Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin were three desperate loners whose dissatisfaction with life led to the birth of what we now understand as modern art, each providing different solutions to their existential crises.

Nineteenth Century Architecture

Against the historicist and eclectic styles, the second half of the nineteenth century saw engineering testing new renewable materials, eliminating ornamental designs. The emergence of new materials is linked to the development of the Industrial Revolution. Other features include:

• Cast iron, which allows for long beams and the manufacture of ornaments and furniture.
• Glass, capable of producing large sheets, replacing walls or roofs.
• Reinforced concrete, which will not appear until the late nineteenth century, reinforced internally with a metal structure.
• New steel structures that allow walls to lose their supporting function.
• The invention of beams, arches, and metal and concrete supports, enabling considerable space.
• New materials allow for faster and cheaper construction.
• Universal exhibitions embody these new materials.

Concept of Modernism

Modernism is a vast aesthetic movement with international diffusion, roughly occurring between 1890 and 1910. The bourgeoisie, enriched and refined in the late nineteenth century, felt the need for art rooted in the past but more elegant and of higher quality than that offered by historicist artists or engineers. It is a style of elites, particularly the industrial and financial bourgeoisie, characterized by elegance and refinement. Key features include:

• The movement receives different names in each country.
• Modernism seeks a fusion between everyday life and art, with artists designing all objects, furniture, silverware, carpets, jewelry, etc., to the buildings where life unfolds.
• There is a historicist inspiration, but modernism does not faithfully copy these arts; instead, it seeks forms that bring it closer to nature, predominating curved lines and arabesques.
• Structural elements are made visible and operational, becoming essential parts of the decorative system.
• Winding wall surfaces and asymmetrical distribution of doors and decorative details.
• Exteriors offer more freedom of form, utilizing tile, stone, and brick with new finishes.
• Art emerges as a means to instruct the public or praise the driving forces of society, becoming an art of visual pleasure and enjoyment of the spirit.

Gaudí

Gaudí’s promotion of Catalan industrialization strongly influenced its development. His characteristics include:

• A key approach to nature, collecting Nordic medieval forms and even Eastern influences.
• Ornamentation dominated by motifs like butterflies, flowers, and curvilinear, decorative, and romantic elements.
• Concerns about color, light, and harmony of proportions.
• A great enthusiasm for polychrome forms in glass, ceramics, and painting, using new materials to create bold and fantastic architecture that prioritizes imagination over utilitarian design.
• New features introduced include inclined columns, irregular shapes, parabolic arches, and fantastical shutters.

Born into a family of craftsmen, Gaudí attracted the attention of affluent middle-class families and the Catalan aristocracy, who accepted and understood his sumptuous projects.