The Industrial Revolution: A Socioeconomic Transformation
The Industrial Revolution
1. Introduction
The Industrial Revolution was a period of significant economic and technological change that began in Britain in the 18th century. It transformed society and the economy in unprecedented ways.
1.1. Population Revolution
Europe experienced a period of population growth (demographic revolution) from 140 million to 266 million. This was due to increased food production and advancements in hygiene and medicine. Life expectancy increased from 38 to 50 years.
1.2. Agricultural Revolution
Increased population led to higher demand for food, which in turn caused prices to rise. This spurred a transformation in agriculture. Land privatization and new cultivation methods were introduced. Laws were passed to dismantle the feudal system and communal land ownership, establishing private property. The fallow system was abandoned, and agricultural tasks were mechanized, leading to a more diverse diet.
2. The Age of Machinery
2.1. Machines, Steam, and the Factory System
Growing population and agricultural advancements led to technological innovation. Simple but effective machines were invented, increasing productivity and reducing costs. Early machines were powered by water, but steam emerged as a superior energy source. The factory system arose, concentrating workers and machines in large industrial buildings. This led to a division of labor.
2.2. The Textile Industry
The textile industry in Britain was the first to adopt machinery, focusing on cotton production. Innovations like the flying shuttle and the power loom significantly increased weaving and yarn production speeds.
2.3. The Iron Industry
The invention of coke (a fuel derived from coal) revolutionized iron production. Coke had a higher calorific value, increasing productivity. It also enabled the conversion of iron into steel.
3. Transportation and Trade
3.1. The Railroad and Steamboat
Transportation systems, including roads and waterways, were significantly improved. The railroad, with its innovative rail system that prevented derailment, emerged as a major mode of transportation. Steam-powered locomotives were developed, and steamboats replaced sailing ships.
3.2. Increased Trade
The market economy replaced the old system of bartering. Improved transportation facilitated internal and international trade. Protectionist policies, such as tariffs on imports, were implemented to defend national industries.
4. Industrial Capitalism
The Industrial Revolution gave rise to capitalism as an economic model and liberalism as a political doctrine.
4.1. Liberalism and Capitalism
Liberalism: Emphasized personal interest and profit maximization. Prices were determined by supply and demand. The state was expected to refrain from intervening in the economy, allowing free development of individual interests (free trade).
Capitalism: The means of production (factories, machinery, and resources) were privately owned by the bourgeoisie. Workers were employed in factories. Capitalism’s lack of planning and constant production led to economic crises due to oversupply, business failures, and unemployment.
4.2. Banks and Finance
Banks played a crucial role in the development of capitalism. They provided capital to businesses through loans and facilitated payments through checks. Banks acted as intermediaries between savers and industrialists. Corporations emerged to meet the large capital requirements of businesses. Capital was divided into shares that could be acquired through stock markets.
4.3. The Expansion of Industrial Capitalism
Industrial capitalism spread to other countries in the 19th century, including France, Belgium, Germany, the USA, Russia, and Japan. Steel and textile industries gained prominence. Some countries relied on foreign capital and technology. State intervention in the economy varied. Southern and Eastern Europe industrialized later, with Eastern Europe largely remaining agrarian until the 20th century.
5. The Second Industrial Revolution
A new phase of industrialization, known as the Second Industrial Revolution, emerged.
5.1. New Energy Sources and Industries
Electricity and oil replaced coal as primary energy sources. Electricity had numerous applications, including powering machines, railways, trams, telephones, radios, phonographs, cinematographers, and lighting. Oil fueled cars, ships, and eventually airplanes. The metallurgy of stainless steel and aluminum developed. The chemical industry produced new fertilizers, pesticides, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Reinforced concrete was used in construction, leading to the first skyscrapers.
5.2. New Industrial Organization
Taylorism, or scientific management, introduced the assembly line and a division of labor into specialized tasks performed with precision machines. Each worker focused on a specific part of the production process, maximizing efficiency. This led to industrial concentration and the growth of large businesses. Cartels (agreements between companies), trusts (merged companies), holdings (financial groups owning shares in multiple companies and banks), and monopolies (exclusive rights to market a product) emerged.
6. The New Industrial Society
Industrial society was characterized by a class structure primarily divided into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
The bourgeoisie, who owned industries and businesses, were the dominant class. They were further divided into the upper, middle, and lower bourgeoisie.
The proletariat consisted of factory workers. They were the largest and most disadvantaged group.
6.3. The First Workers’ Associations
Workers initially reacted to industrialization with Luddism, a movement opposed to machinery due to concerns about low wages and unemployment. Luddites destroyed machines and industrial establishments.
7. Marxism, Anarchism, and Internationalism
7.1. Marxism and Socialism
Marxism and socialism denounced the exploitation of the working class and advocated for a workers’ revolution to overthrow capitalism. They envisioned a worker-controlled state that would socialize property, abolish private property, and create a classless society. Marxists promoted the formation of socialist workers’ parties and political action.
7.2. Anarchism
Anarchism was based on three principles: individual freedom, social solidarity, and rejection of authority and private property. Anarchists opposed political participation and aimed to create a collectivist and egalitarian society through social revolution. They sought to improve working conditions.
7.3. Internationalism
. Marxist and proletarian internationalism anarquis defended. It created the International Workers Association. Socialist International II.