The Industrial Revolution: A Transformative Era
The Demographic and Agricultural Revolutions
The Industrial Revolution was preceded by significant demographic and agricultural changes in the UK. The English population tripled in half a century due to increased birth rates and declining mortality. The agricultural revolution, beginning in the early 18th century, saw the transformation of land ownership and farming practices. The enclosure movement converted communal lands into private parcels, leading to increased productivity and driving peasants to seek work in cities.
The Rise of Industry
Several factors contributed to the rise of industry, including Britain’s status as a leading naval and commercial power, its embrace of free trade, and a favorable political and institutional context.
Key Industries
The Cotton Textile Industry
This industry was the engine of change, driven by the demand for high-quality, low-priced yarn. Innovations in weaving machines and the introduction of James Watt’s steam engine revolutionized production. The resulting increase in productivity led to lower prices, further fueled by cheaper rail transport.
The Steel Industry
Advances in steel production, such as the use of coke in ovens, the invention of puddling and lamination, led to the concentration of factories near coal mines.
The Transport Revolution
The slow pace of transporting goods and people spurred innovations in transportation. A network of canals connected raw material sources with industrial areas. Improved roads and highways, initially radiating from London, facilitated trade. The most significant development was the railway. George Stephenson’s steam locomotive, “The Rocket,” revolutionized transport, benefiting the metallurgical industry, civil engineering, and the movement of heavy materials. It also shortened travel times, lowered the cost of raw materials and products, and promoted the formation of large capital companies.
Liberalism and Capitalism
Adam Smith’s theories of individual economic interest and limited government intervention shaped liberal thought. This doctrine emphasized labor as the source of wealth. The Industrial Revolution marked the triumph of capitalism, leading to a shift from a rural, agrarian society to an industrial and service-based economy. This transition also marked the emergence of a class-based society.
Class Society
The Lower Classes
The lower classes consisted of the poor from traditional sectors, workers, and peasants. The proletariat, formed by industrial workers, endured harsh working conditions, with wages and contracts often disregarded.
The Middle Classes
Skilled workers and those in the expanding service sector contributed to the growth of the middle class.
The Upper Classes
The traditional role of the nobility declined as the bourgeoisie, led by industrial entrepreneurs, gained economic and political power.
The Labor Movement
Ideological Bases
Utopian Socialism
This ideology envisioned an ideal society achieved through peaceful means, emphasizing solidarity and philanthropy. Key figures included Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Robert Owen.
Marxist Socialism
Karl Marx analyzed the contradictions of capitalism, arguing that class struggle was the driving force of social change. He believed that capitalist exploitation would lead to a proletarian revolution and the establishment of a communist society.
Anarchism
Anarchism, advocated by Mikhail Bakunin, sought the immediate destruction of the existing social order and the state. While sharing the goal of a socialist/communist society, anarchists differed from Marxists in their strategies, advocating for decentralized, anti-authoritarian organization.
Origins and Development
Source
Early trade unions evolved from fraternal societies. The Combination Laws initially prohibited worker associations, but were later repealed, allowing for free association. The Luddite movement was prominent in the early stages of the labor movement.
Development
The Peterloo Massacre and the subsequent legalization of worker associations were key events. Robert Owen’s Grand National Consolidated Trades Union aimed for worker control of industry, but ultimately failed. The Chartist movement advocated for political rights and universal suffrage. Following the failure of Chartism, the labor movement shifted towards peaceful negotiation. National unions emerged, offering mutual benefits to members.
The First International
Origins, Formation, and Objectives
The First International arose from a meeting of French and British labor leaders in London. Exiles played a significant role in the organization.
Internal Problems and Ideological Division
The First International encompassed various ideological trends. A power struggle emerged between Marx and Bakunin, with Marx advocating for centralized authority and Bakunin supporting local autonomy. The Paris Commune further exacerbated this division. Marx attributed the Commune’s failure to its lack of a unified program, while Bakunin praised its spontaneous nature.
The End of the First International
Bakunin’s expulsion and the relocation of the International’s headquarters to New York weakened the organization. Declining participation in subsequent congresses led to its eventual demise in 1876.