The Industrial Revolution: A Transformative Period
1. What Was the Industrial Revolution?
The Industrial Revolution was a transformative movement originating in England, marked by radical changes in production methods. This period led to significant social phenomena worldwide. Historians generally place the Industrial Revolution between 1760 and 1870 (though some argue it ended in 1840). The term “industrial revolution” appeared in France around 1820. Its roots can be traced to the medieval period, when growing trade outpaced the output of craft workshops, leading businessmen to establish factories near usable energy sources.
2. Causes of the Industrial Revolution
Historians categorize the causes of the English Industrial Revolution as exogenous (indirectly related) and endogenous (directly related).
Exogenous Causes
- The Demographic Revolution: Increased population due to higher birth rates and lower mortality, resulting from improved health, better nutrition, and the decline of major epidemics.
- The Agricultural Revolution: Advancements in farming practices through changes in attitudes, laws, and techniques. Key improvements included seed drills, crop rotation, and iron plows, leading to increased yields and production.
- The Commercial Revolution: Countries obtained raw materials from their colonies (often at minimal cost), processed them, and sold the finished goods, generating substantial profits.
- The Revolution in Transport: Construction of roads and canals. While the invention of the steam engine (Watt, 1769) and the locomotive (Stephenson, 1814), along with their application to steamboats, fall under the endogenous technological revolution, they quickly impacted transportation.
- The Development of Education: The spread of knowledge fostered progress in various fields, including medicine and hygiene.
Endogenous Causes
- Technical Revolution: Continuous technological innovation, including the replacement of manual labor with machines and the shift from craft production to manufacturing. This increased efficiency and reduced production costs, leading to significant growth in national wealth. New energy sources (coal and water) powered these machines, with the steam engine playing a crucial role. Investment in the textile sector saw innovations like Kay’s flying shuttle (1733), which necessitated more thread, leading to Hargreaves’ spinning jenny (1767). Cartwright’s power loom (1785) further automated the process, boosting production. Investments in the steel sector included Darby’s discovery of coking coal (1732) and innovations like puddling, rolling, hot air blast furnaces, and the Bessemer converter.
- Capital Accumulation: The bourgeoisie, the new ruling class, controlled factories, mines, banks, and businesses. Workers faced exploitation and harsh conditions, leading to the emergence of two distinct social classes: the industrial bourgeoisie and the factory proletariat.
- Entrepreneurial Spirit: Factory owners took risks by investing in machinery, driven by the potential for increased demand and reduced labor costs, leading to higher profits.
3. Effects of the Industrial Revolution
- Demographic Revolution: Slow but steady population growth. In England, between 1750 and 1801, the population grew by 2.5 million (four times the previous period). Rural exodus led to overcrowded industrial cities and abandoned farmland. High migration rates also saw people seeking opportunities in places like America.
- Deteriorating Working Conditions: Long working hours, poor hygiene, and dangerous machinery characterized factory work. Women and children faced similar conditions, often for lower wages. A court case in Stockport (1841) highlighted the desperation of families, where parents were penalized for endangering their children’s lives through factory work, their defense being the lack of alternative means to feed their families.
- Capitalism or Economic Liberalism: A new economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and goods, with minimal government intervention. The law of supply and demand played a central role. Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776) promoted capitalism. Key institutions included privately or collectively owned enterprises, stock exchanges, and banks.
- The Labor Movement: Workers united to improve working conditions (hours, wages) in the absence of legal reforms. Early worker associations were prohibited, leading to violent protests like the Luddites, who destroyed machinery. The legalization of worker associations in 1825 led to the formation of Trade Unions, which provided support to members and their families during illness or death. In other parts of Europe, the right to associate wasn’t recognized until the late 19th century.