The Industrial Revolutions: A Transformation of Society
1. Introduction
The Industrial Revolution marks a period of profound changes in society, transforming how work is conducted and goods are produced. This shift was driven by the use of new energy sources to power machinery. It began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century, spreading through Europe in the nineteenth century and influencing the globe. The process was driven by industrial modernization, starting with the steam engine powered by coal, followed by oil and electricity. The Industrial Revolution is ongoing, with the current era often referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution. This process represents the most significant transformation experienced by humanity since the Neolithic agricultural revolution.
Pre-industrial societies
Before the Industrial Revolution, human and animal power were the primary energy sources, with minimal use of water and wind. Production, construction, and transportation were slow. The majority of the population lived in rural farming communities, a system that had dominated since medieval times. Cities were few and generally small, dirty, and unwelcoming, despite concentrating most trade and industry. Pestilence and famine were common, and mortality, especially infant mortality, was very high. Horse-drawn carts and sailing ships were more effective but more expensive than oxen and rowing boats.
2. Background
England was the first country to experience the Industrial Revolution due to its favorable conditions and high economic level, largely thanks to maritime trade.
Population increase
Europe experienced population growth since the mid-seventeenth century, mainly due to advances in medicine that decreased mortality, improved hygiene, and reduced pests.
A new revolution in agriculture
Significant changes occurred in European agriculture, including:
- The introduction of new plant foods such as potatoes and corn, which provided nutrients and fed livestock.
- The implementation of a four-year crop rotation system, eliminating fallow land and increasing production.
- The development of feedlot cattle, where animals were raised and fed in stalls.
- The incorporation of machinery powered by animals, allowing more work in less time.
In England, these processes were accompanied by changes in land tenure. Communal lands were eliminated, benefiting individuals who invested in improvements and machinery. This modernization led to the ruin of many farmers.
Technical and technological advances
England also saw various technical and technological innovations in several industries:
a. The steel industry: The iron industry used water power to drive bellows in blast furnaces where iron was smelted with charcoal. Rolled iron and bar production took place in facilities where workers received wages. A major improvement came in 1709 when Abraham Darby found that using coke in the furnace was more efficient than charcoal. This increased demand for coke, boosting activity in coal mines. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen devised a motor that pumped water from mines.
b. The textile industry: This industry was also a pioneer in England. The invention of the flying shuttle allowed for faster and wider fabric weaving. Spinning machines sped up the spinning process, and the power loom accelerated weaving.
Availability of capital, raw materials and labor
The modernization of industries and new machinery required capital and a ready workforce. Capital came from trade and the benefits of agriculture for some landowners. England had coal and iron mines, and the cotton textile industry sourced raw materials from colonies in North America and India. Industries settled in urban centers, which attracted a workforce due to population growth and migration.
3. First Industrial Revolution
The major catalyst for the Industrial Revolution was the steam engine, patented by James Watt in 1769 and constructed in 1782. This engine used steam power to produce rotary motion, enabling machines to operate. Coal was used to heat water and produce steam. This innovation accelerated processes in various fields and overcame the limitations of traditional energy sources.
a) The steam engine in industry: The steam engine was incorporated into industry, allowing for increased production in less time. Factories replaced workshops, concentrating inputs, workers, and managers.
b) The steam engine in the field: The steam engine increased agricultural productivity, leading to farmers migrating to cities for work. Rural populations increased their incomes by becoming consumers of industrial products.
c) The steam engine and the revolution in transportation: New transportation systems were needed, leading to the development of the railroad and the steamboat. The locomotive and steam railways moved cars on rails, while the steamboat was a new seagoing transport. These innovations increased cargo capacity and speed in transporting goods and passengers.
4. Consequences
Economic transformations
The increasing use of machinery, driven by the steam engine, generalized the factory system. This system concentrated the means of production in one place, with workers operating machinery. Women and children also joined the workforce. Industrial capitalism emerged, aiming to reduce production costs to maximize profits. This system separated labor and capital, with capital dominating. Workers contributed their labor for wages, while industrialists owned the factories and capital. Joint stock companies or corporations were formed to raise capital for large industries, with shareholders earning a percentage of profits.
The new energy sources and machines led to a considerable increase in production, stimulating trade. England traded with its colonies, buying raw materials and selling industrial products. The need to expedite the shipment of goods transformed the landscape with the construction of canals and railroads. Capital was invested in the railway industry, which also encouraged the production of iron rails and locomotives. Economic liberalism, theorized by Adam Smith, underpinned these new economic practices, emphasizing individual initiative, profit, and competition guided by supply and demand.
The Industrial Society
The Industrial Revolution led to significant changes in population volume, distribution, and organization. The population began a rapid increase, known as a population explosion, and urban life expanded. The population concentrated in cities, which became more populous. Factories led to the growth of cities, and rural populations migrated to cities in search of work. Industrialization created a more complex class society, replacing the stratified society. Money and capital allowed for social mobility.
The big bourgeoisie, consisting of industrialists, bankers, businessmen, and senior officials, formed the upper class. They had enormous wealth, cultural power, and a vibrant social life. The middle class, composed of employers, professionals, and employees, valued work, education, family, and duty. They admired the cultural models of the upper class and sought upward mobility through education. The lower class consisted of peasants, who had not undergone major changes. The Industrial and Urban Proletariat emerged, with families experiencing low incomes, insufficient food, and unsanitary housing. Employees worked long hours with few days off and no protection. Wages were low, and workers were easily replaced. This situation was known as the social question.
Workers Organizations
The negative effects of new production methods led to the rise of ideas and organizations that criticized the economic model. Luddism was a labor movement that reacted against the introduction of machines, destroying looms and threshers. Chartism demanded political power for workers, advocating for universal suffrage. Friendly Societies and Mutual aimed to support workers in cases of unemployment or illness. Unions emerged in the late nineteenth century, seeking to negotiate wage increases and employment rights. Unionism became a major achievement for workers against employer abuse.
New political ideas
Critics of the social question altered the political and social landscape. Utopian Socialism sought to achieve a society based on solidarity and equality. The Communist Manifesto, by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, proposed scientific socialism, arguing that history was driven by class struggle. They proposed abolishing private property and socializing capital through a battle between the exploited and their exploiters.
5. Second Industrial Revolution
Electricity
In 1869, the invention of the dynamo allowed for the production of electricity. By 1897, processors and alternators were developed, enabling the storage and transfer of electricity over long distances. Hydraulic engineering led to the construction of dams that generated hydroelectricity. Electricity transformed lifestyles, with electric lighting, telephones, and radios becoming common. The cost of electricity became part of household maintenance.
Oil
In the 1850s, the theoretical and scientific bases for oil extraction and refining were established. In 1859, oil was extracted in Pennsylvania. Initially used to replace torches, oil was later used to produce gasoline in 1886, triggering an oil rush. The automobile was invented at the end of the nineteenth century. Oil applications extended to all transport means, including the first aircraft powered by fuel. The chemical industry also produced plastic from oil. Unlike electricity, oil production is limited by the availability of deposits, giving countries with oil a higher socioeconomic status. The need for oil replacement is a major contemporary crisis.
6. Chile and the Industrial Revolution
Chile incorporated technological advances of the Industrial Revolution, introducing steamships in 1835 and the first railway in 1851. Chile became a supplier of natural resources, including coal, copper, and nitrate. Chile adopted a model that emphasized domestic industry in 1940. Chile also experienced social issues, with workers organizing in unions and demanding improvements in their situation.