The Iron Age: A Comprehensive Look at Its Development
Iron Age: Towards the Middle Bronze Age, increasing amounts of cast iron objects began to appear in Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the Indian subcontinent, the Levant, the Mediterranean coast, and Egypt. These objects are distinguishable from meteoric iron by the absence of nickel. In some places, their use seems to have been ceremonial, and iron metal was expensive, much more than gold. Some sources suggest that iron was produced in parts as a byproduct of the copper production process, and it was not obtainable separately with the metallurgy of the time.
However, in Anatolia, iron was consistently produced from a source of meteoric iron, not far from grain harvested from other metals during the Bronze Age. This gives rise to the use and production of the oldest iron objects. Recent archaeological investigations in the valley of the Ganges in India discovered the first use of ironwork by 1800 BC. Around 1200 BC, iron was widely used in the Middle East, but it had not yet replaced the dominant use of bronze for some time. By 1800 BC, for reasons still unknown to archaeologists, tin became scarce in the Levant, which led to a crisis in the production of bronze. Copper also seemed scarce. Several civilizations, referred to as “pirates” of the Mediterranean, began to attack fortified cities from 1800 to 1700 BC with the intention of plundering bronze to recast it and turn it into weapons. Anatolia had long been a major producer of brass, and the use of iron (from 2000 BC onwards) led to the existence of superior weapons technology by 1500 BC. In Western Africa, iron production began almost at the same time, and it seems clear that it was an invention developed independently and simultaneously. [The sites containing iron ore developed prominence in the last millennium BC to maintain in the future. Military technology designed to leverage the use of iron originated in Assyria, which seems to have considered the city of Troy as a trading post (the head of a hammer found in 1902 in the ruins of Troy, dating from 1200 BC, is probably Assyrian). In any case, the iron trade between Assyria and the independent city of Troy was well established at that time, and the secret of its production was closely guarded by the Assyrians.
Europe: The metallurgy of iron was introduced into Europe, probably from Asia Minor, in the 11th century BC, and spread north and west during the next 500 years. It is commonly considered that the Iron Age in Europe ends with the Roman conquest.
Eastern Europe: The Iron Age in Eastern Europe began in the early first millennium BC. In the Pontic-Caspian steppe and the Caucasus, the Koban Culture, the Novocherkassk Culture, and the Chernogorovka mark the emergence of the early Iron Age between the 10th century BC and the 9th century BC. Around 800 BC, it began spreading to the Hallstatt culture through Thracian-Cimmerian migration. Along with Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures in the current territory of Russia and Ukraine, the Iron Age is almost overwhelmingly associated with the Scythians, who developed from the 7th century BC. Most of the remains of their iron production and metal industries between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC were found near Nikopol (in Kamenskoe Gorodishche), in what is considered the quintessential metal region of ancient Scythia. From the Hallstatt culture, ceramics were excised, and graffiti were sometimes inlaid, while in the swords, doorknobs were embedded in bone, ivory, or amber. Regarding funeral rites, in the early period, incineration and deposition in an urn were imposed, but from Hallstatt C, there was an increase in burials, which were already predominant in Hallstatt D. There are clear differences in the tombs, regarding their trousseau and structures. The rich preferred to be deposited in wooden chambers, low mounds. The Iron Age is moving westward, expanding following the Celts in the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the Lusatian Culture at this time, followed in some areas by the Spotted Culture. Over the years, there has been a bitter discussion regarding the ethnic ascriptions of many cultures of the Iron Age, as it is generally considered that the area is home to the Germanic peoples, Balts, and Slavs.
Central Europe: In Central Europe, the Iron Age is usually divided into Early Iron Age (like the Hallstatt culture Hallstatt A and B (1200-750 BC for the Late Bronze Age in the fields of urns [Hallstatt C and D 750-450 BC), consolidated as the Early Iron Age, although C still belongs to the fields of urns [,,]. This last phase (Phase D) refers to the period of La Tène (South of France and the area between the Rhine and the Moselle 480-50 BC) or Iron Age II, between 800 BC and 450 BC, and the Late Iron Age (as in the culture of La Tène), which began around 450 BC. German historians tend to distinguish between a pre-Roman Iron Age (La Tène) and another Roman (Jastorf culture).
South and West Europe:
Main article: British Iron Age
In Italy, it is likely that iron technology was introduced for the first time by the Villanova Culture (this culture is characterized by the use of the ritual of cremation. The ashes from the cremation were collected in hourglass-shaped glasses. The urn used to be covered with a glass or lid, sometimes in male graves, a helmet, a symbol of social prestige. In other cases, the urn-shaped hut symbolically represented the house. Inside the urn were placed the objects that the deceased had at the time of cremation. There was a noticeable difference between the regalia of either sex: male grave goods included brooches, razor blades, and one or more weapons, while the female contained brooches, bracelets, beads, and yarn items. The uniform appearance, “egalitarian,” of the regalia of the earliest phase transitioned to a more heterogeneous form, reflecting the progressive articulation of communities into different social classes, within which the aristocracy tended to excel, leading to a splendid flowering of the period “oriental.”), although this was itself a culture of the Bronze Age. The Iron Age proper begins with the Etruscan civilization, which ended abruptly with the conquest of the latter city, Volsinii, by the nascent Roman Republic in the year 265 BC. In the Iberian culture, we find Tartessos, followed chronologically by the Iberians. The influence of Celtic migrations displaced in the peninsula developed a new culture, the Celts. Meanwhile, in the current French territories, the Gauls appeared.
In the British Isles, the Iron Age lasted from the 5th century BC until the Roman conquest, and well into the 5th century in areas not romanized. There are also clear traces of Celtic influence, leading to the conclusion of common cultural roots of Celtic origin throughout Western Europe. Defensive structures dating from that era tend to be very impressive, such as brochs in the north of Scotland and the forts that dot the rest of the islands.
Northern Europe: The Iron Age is divided, according to historians of the area, into a Pre-Roman Iron Age and a Roman Iron Age, followed by a period of migration. Northern Germany and Denmark were dominated by the Jastorf Culture, while in the zone south of Scandinavia was the very similar German Iron Age. The early Scandinavians produced iron through manual collection of iron ore. Archaeological remains in Scandinavia, Finland, and Estonia indicate early iron production on a small scale, although it is impossible to date them safely.
Iron Age
In archaeology, the Iron Age is the study of the stage in the development of a civilization, which is characterized by the discovery and popularization of the use of iron as a material for making weapons and tools. In some ancient societies, the metallurgical technologies required to work with iron appeared simultaneously with other technological and cultural changes, including often changes in agriculture, religious beliefs, and artistic styles, although this has not always been the case. The Iron Age is the last of the three major periods in the system of three ages that societies use to classify prehistory, and it is preceded by the Bronze Age. The date of onset, duration, and context varies according to the study area. The first known appearance of partnerships with cultural and technological levels for the Iron Age is given in the 12th century BC in several places: in the ancient Middle East, in ancient India (with the Vedic civilization in the days before the composition of the Rig-veda), and in Europe during the Greek Dark Ages.
In other European regions, the start of the Iron Age was much later; it did not develop in Central Europe until the 8th century BC, and until the 6th century BC in Northern Europe. In Africa, the first known exponent of iron smelting and forging is attributed to the Nok culture in present-day Nigeria, dating back to the 11th century BC.
The Iron Age also ended at different times depending on the region: in the Mediterranean area, with the onset of historical tradition in the Hellenistic period and the Roman Empire; in India, with the arrival of Buddhism and Jainism (7th century BC); in China, with the start of Confucianism; and in Northern Europe, it continued until the Middle Ages.
The Iron Age came about when production became the most sophisticated in metallurgy. While it requires a high melting temperature, the strength and abundance of sources of iron ore made it a much more desirable and cheaper material to obtain than bronze, which decisively contributed to its adoption as the most widely used metal. There was never an Iron Age itself in America and Australasia, since in these regions, the technology to work with iron was introduced by European settlement.
Theories: The Arrival of Iron in Europe: In Europe, the first objects were obtained by hammering; we do not know if they were merged or added carbon, areas already known to the Hittites. Different fragments of iron knives were found in Sweden, the Netherlands, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic (15th-11th centuries BC). Then we have more modern pieces, like a piece of iron from Northern Europe, dating to 1100 BC, and iron rings in Austria from 1000 BC. It is possible that iron arrived via trade with eastern countries. With this in mind, there are two ways of spreading: maritime and continental.
The continental spread was centered in Anatolia, Syria, and Cyprus. Iron diffused through the Balkans and the Caucasus, reaching the British Isles in the 7th century BC.
The maritime spread involved the Mediterranean, where Phoenician and Greek colonization played an important role. This spread was especially rapid in the territories bordering the Mediterranean compared to the northern lands. In Italy, iron arrived around the 10th century BC, in Calabria, and a little later in the Iberian Peninsula. Etruscan influence could have opened a route to the north through the Alps, but this is doubtful given the low interest of the Etruscans in iron.
Release: There is no consensus regarding these theories. Some authors, such as Vere Gordon Childe, argue that iron came from invasions of eastern peoples introducing new technology and are based on Hill Forts. Others advocate for a limited diffusion, which does not require foreign nations, as the most important factor is the spread of techniques. People saw the benefits of the new metal and therefore assimilated it.
Autochthonism: These theories are quite discredited and even branded as racist, as they defend the importance of the receptor factor. New items are only adopted where there is a suitable transformation of society, especially among the elites. For example, iron was not applied in Europe for instruments tuned for agricultural production, despite the great importance of these elements in society. Most of the iron was used for decorations. As for weapons, iron weapons are hard to find and are often found in funerary deposits. These are weapons that replicate the style of the bronzes of the period, therefore, locally produced. Studies show that 67% of iron objects from this period include soft iron, low carbon arms that were poorly effective and not practical as weapons.
The revaluation of bronze: Other researchers, such as Geselowitz, understand that the appearance of iron objects is not about the importance of the new metal but a revaluation of bronze. To avoid wasting the precious bronze, iron was used for burials. Only later, with the realization that iron is better and the perfection of its metallurgy, did it replace bronze, which then became a decorative element.