The Jewish People in the 20th Century
The New Decree: The Spread of Anti-Semitic Propaganda
Following the pogroms, a narrative began to spread that blamed the Jewish people for the violence, portraying it as a reaction against their alleged exploitation of the local population. A report presented to the Tsar’s minister claimed that despite efforts to integrate Jews into Russian society over the past 20 years, and granting them near-equal rights with the native population, the relationship between the two groups remained strained. The report attributed this tension to economic factors, alleging that Jews had been monopolizing trade, various occupations, and land over the past two decades. It further asserted that Jews were focused on exploiting the native population, leading to protests from the residents. The report recommended the formation of special committees in areas with Jewish populations to investigate these issues. In 1881, an ordinance was issued to establish these committees in each province within the Jewish Pale of Settlement. In 1882, serious pogroms instigated by local officials erupted. Alarmed by the violence, the authorities replaced the minister with Dimitri Tolstoi, whose appointment led to a temporary suspension of the unrest.
Provisional Regulations and the Consolidation of Anti-Semitic Policies
Ignatiev’s final act before being replaced by Dimitri Tolstoi was the drafting of anti-Jewish decrees, known as the provisional decrees. These decrees included the following provisions:
- Jews were forbidden to settle outside of cities and towns, except for those engaged in agriculture.
- Property and mortgage contracts in the names of Jews residing outside of cities and towns were temporarily suspended.
- Jews were prohibited from conducting trade on Sundays and during Christian holidays.
- The decrees outlined in paragraphs 1-3 were to be implemented in districts with permanent Jewish populations.
The government adopted anti-Semitic policies, framing them as a defense of the native inhabitants against alleged Jewish exploitation. These decrees severely impacted the livelihoods of Jews. Corrupt local officials and police began to exploit the situation, extorting bribes and blackmailing Jews. Jewish schools in Russia, including one that had been operating since 1862, were closed under the pretext that they gave Jews an unfair advantage.
Escalation of Tsarist Anti-Jewish Policy
The central government aimed to encourage as many Jews as possible to leave Russia. It declared its intention to find a solution to the “Jewish problem” through legislation and established another commission to review existing laws concerning Jews. This committee gathered extensive information about the Jewish population, their status, and economic activities. Ultimately, it concluded that a gradual increase in Jewish rights was necessary to bring them in line with the rest of the population, but the Tsar rejected this recommendation. Jews began to be expelled from government service, and their access to secondary and higher education was restricted. Jewish artisans were expelled from Moscow.
The Policy of Tsar Nicholas II
Tsar Nicholas II ascended to the throne around 1894 and largely maintained the existing anti-Jewish policies, adding some further oppressive measures. However, public opinion and intellectual circles shifted due to disappointment that the new Tsar did not initiate liberal reforms.
The Kishinev Pogrom: The Facts
In Kishinev, an anti-Semitic newspaper led by Krushevan published inflammatory articles against Jews, warning that they would eventually take over Russia. Krushevan formed a group of agitators, including journalists, officials, seminarians, and medical professionals. In 1903, the newspaper spread a false rumor that Jews had killed a Christian boy to use his blood in Passover rituals. Although the authorities investigated and forced the newspaper to retract the story, the agitation continued. On the last day of Passover, Krushevan and a mob gathered in a Kishinev square and began attacking Jews on their way to prayer, assaulting Jewish shops and homes, looting, murdering, and raping women, children, and the elderly. The police encouraged the attackers, and a military band played as if nothing was happening. The violence subsided at night but resumed at 4 am.
The Russo-Japanese War and the Revolution of 1905
The Russo-Japanese War was a failure for Russia, not only because it failed to achieve its territorial ambitions but also due to military defeats, the high cost of naval operations, and its unpopularity among the Russian population, whose national spirit did not align with strategic interests in the Far East. Industrial strikes added to the wave of popular discontent. In January 1905, a demonstration at the Winter Palace, where protesters attempted to petition the Tsar about the plight of the proletariat, was violently suppressed. Strikes continued, culminating in a general strike in October 1905. The imperial government conceded to the main demand and proclaimed the transformation of the autocracy into a constitutional monarchy. The October Manifesto was issued, granting basic civil liberties, democratic rights, and freedom of speech, which allowed for the formation of more radical groups. The October Manifesto was met with enthusiasm by many, weakening the revolutionary groups that had called for general strikes. However, a workers’ uprising in Moscow, known as the 1905 Revolution, ensued. The Tsar’s forces brutally crushed the rebellion. Subsequently, a right-wing group, the Union of the Russian People, was formed. This group aimed to combat the liberalization of Russia by portraying it as a Jewish conspiracy and organizing pogroms to demonstrate the supposed reality of this plot.
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
After the Kishinev pogrom, Krushevan published a report in his newspaper alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to take over Russia. A version appeared in 1903, but Krushevan did not disclose the source of the manuscript, claiming it was an original document written in France. The document outlined a supposed plan for Jewish world domination. It contained three main themes: criticism of liberalism, an analysis of the methods by which Jews had allegedly achieved global control, and a description of the state that would be established after their supposed conquest. The original text was, in fact, a dialogue between Montesquieu and Machiavelli against Napoleon.
The Beilis Trial
The last ritual murder trial took place in Kiev against Mendel Beilis, a Jewish man. In 1911, the body of a 12-year-old boy was found in a Kiev suburb. The Union of the Russian People distributed flyers accusing Jews of murdering the child to use his blood in secret rituals. The justice minister decided to turn the case into a ritual murder trial to put Russian Jews on trial. He instructed the judicial authorities in Kiev to take the accusations seriously and find the murderer among the Jews. Beilis was arrested and charged. The words of Oscar Gruzenberg, a member of Beilis’s defense team, had a powerful impact, urging those responsible for the verdict to reflect on their actions. The jury ultimately found Beilis not guilty of the charges.
Chapter 37: The Development of Socialism and Jewish Autonomy
Given the near-total lack of rights for Jews, they pursued various paths between 1880 and 1914, including integration into Gentile society, strengthening traditional frameworks, awaiting messianic redemption, embracing revolutionary ideas, migration, and the emergence of a Jewish national movement. All Jews living in Europe faced the dilemma of how to relate to the Gentile population and society on the one hand, and to their own people on the other.
The Bund
The Bund was a Jewish socialist movement founded in Vilnius. It initiated an organized struggle for Jewish workers, demanding improved living conditions. In response to the Tsar’s reforms, a significant segment of Jewish youth became interested in general political issues, particularly those concerning Russia. The major crisis that gripped Russia in the 1880s and the growing number of Jewish workers influenced the Bund’s tactics: it embraced strikes and shifted from Russian socialist propaganda to Yiddish. This language change led to the creation of specifically Jewish organizations, Yiddish revolutionary literature, and a new Yiddish culture. In 1897, delegates from leading Russian Jewish socialist organizations met and decided to establish the General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland, and Russia, or simply the Bund. This was the first independent international Jewish socialist organization. The Bund organized Jewish workers, promoted cultural and educational activities, formed self-defense groups in response to pogroms, actively participated in the 1905 Revolution, and advocated for national cultural autonomy, including the recognition of the Yiddish language.
Autonomism
The term “autonomism” was coined by Simon Dubnow to describe a theory and concept of Jewish nationalism in the Diaspora, based on a specific interpretation of Jewish history. Dubnow viewed Jews as a national cultural entity. The foundation of autonomy rests on his theory that distinguishes three stages in national development: tribal, political-territorial, and cultural-historical or spiritual. According to Dubnow, the Jewish nation exemplifies the development of the third stage. He argued that Judaism, after passing through the stages of tribal nationalism and ancient political-territorial culture, could establish itself and thrive in the third stage, characterized by spiritual and cultural significance.
Migration
Nearly two million Jews chose to migrate, fleeing pogroms and Tsarist restrictions. After the Kishinev pogrom, many went to Palestine (Israel). However, the majority emigrated to the United States.
Chapter 38: The First World War and Its Aftermath
Background and Causes
At the beginning of the 20th century, Great Britain was one of the wealthiest countries in the world, regulating international relations through its economic and naval power. London was the center of the global economy, with fifty percent of countries outside Europe depending on it. British policy aimed to maintain its power, keep sea lanes open, and preserve the balance of power among European nations. However, by 1900, monetary stability, the free movement of people, the expansion of transportation, and economic growth were threatened by the growing anarchy in international relations, the rivalries of expanding imperialist powers, the dependence of poorer countries on the most powerful, rising nationalism, and an arms race. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire further complicated the fragile peace in Europe. The Turks were losing territories. In 1911, Italy waged war against Turkey to conquer Tripoli. Between 1911 and 1913, Turkey lost its last African province and almost all of its European possessions except for Constantinople. Consequently, Arabs in Syria and Mesopotamia revolted against Turkish rule, demanding modernization of the empire.
The Dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire
The Austro-Hungarian Empire faced significant challenges in controlling its territories and maintaining its status as a major European power. Germany had surpassed other European countries in industrialization. The ascension of Kaiser Wilhelm II marked a shift in German policy from the era of Otto von Bismarck, who resigned due to disagreements with the Kaiser’s militaristic and expansionist policies. Wilhelm II supported the construction of a railroad from Berlin to Baghdad to facilitate control over the Ottoman Empire. France aimed to counterbalance German power, recover Alsace and Lorraine, and annex Morocco to its African empire. Great Britain formed an alliance with France to isolate Germany. Italy, a relatively poor country, sought political and economic security. Russia continued to grapple with unresolved political issues following the 1905 Revolution, experiencing political and social conflict. Russia’s goals included gaining control of the Bosporus and Dardanelles to prevent its fleet from being trapped in the Black Sea in case of war with Turkey, securing access to the Mediterranean Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean, establishing Persia as a Russian protectorate, improving Pacific trade routes, expanding its control over Manchuria, and fulfilling its ambition to be the leader and protector of Slavic peoples in Eastern Europe. German expansion posed the greatest obstacle to Russia’s ambitions.
Nationalism
Nationalist sentiment significantly influenced international relations. Serb nationalists advocated for a Greater Serbia, encompassing Bosnia and Herzegovina and provinces of Austria-Hungary. When Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbs fueled discontent among Slavic subjects of Austria, aiming to separate them and annex the remaining territories to Serbia. Russia assumed the role of protector and leader of the Slavs, regardless of their nationality, based on the theory of Pan-Slavism, which posited that all Slavs belonged to a single large family. The Pan-German movement, inspired by the ideas of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and German nationalists, promoted German expansion. French nationalists sought to reclaim territories lost to Germany.
The Arms Race
The absence of an international organization to balance the needs and ambitions of various countries resulted in an arms race. Powers based their security and prosperity on heightened militarism, leading to increased military spending, which imposed a heavy burden on their populations.
Alliance Systems
Countries entered into various defense and mutual assistance alliances to achieve their goals. The great powers of Europe were divided into two opposing blocs: the Triple Entente, consisting of France, Great Britain, and Russia, and the Triple Alliance, comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
International Crises
Several international crises between 1905 and 1913 threatened European peace. Germany and France nearly went to war over control of Morocco. A major crisis erupted when Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, violating the Treaty of Berlin, which recognized these provinces as belonging to Turkey. Austria’s actions provoked a reaction from the Serbs, who also desired these provinces, and they sought assistance from Russia. The Tsar threatened war, but Germany allied with Austria. Since Russia was weakened by the war with Japan, it urged the Serbs to wait for a more opportune moment. Anti-Austrian agitation in Serbia further intensified when Serbia joined other countries in conquering Macedonia from Turkey. However, Serbia refused to grant Austria access to the Adriatic Sea, and Austria, fearing Serbia’s growing power, successfully established Albania as an independent state, thwarting Serbia’s aspirations.
Outbreak of the War
In 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated. The assassination was carried out by Bosnian Serb nationalists who sought to disrupt the Archduke’s plan to transform the dual monarchy into a triple monarchy. Austria blamed Serbia for the murder, triggering a rapid deterioration of relations between European countries, which culminated in the First World War.
The End of the War
By 1918, Germany’s military power remained largely intact. It signed treaties with Russia and Romania, both of which had suffered defeats and lost control over their economies. Subsequently, the French, Americans, and British launched a major offensive against the Germans, pushing them back. Germany’s remaining allies were on the verge of collapse. Turkey surrendered, and Italy attacked Austria, inflicting severe damage. Emperor Charles IV of Austria signed an armistice, taking Austria out of the war. Germany continued fighting alone. Despite its intact military power, Germany’s morale was low, its population suffered from food shortages and starvation, and various parts of the country called for a change of government that would end the war with as little humiliation as possible. Germany was forced to sign an armistice under protest, despite still possessing significant military strength. German troops received the order to cease fire, and the treaties signed with Russia and Romania were nullified. An estimated 65 million people died and 37 million were injured, disabled, or missing in the war. Between 1919 and 1920, conferences were held to establish a new world order. The process was highly contentious, with the Allies disagreeing on the punishment to be imposed on Germany and its allies. Eventually, the Treaty of Versailles was signed.
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was accompanied by other treaties affecting other powers. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost territories, including Alsace and Lorraine, as well as mines. It was disarmed, losing its entire submarine and surface fleet, its army was limited, it was forbidden from stationing troops in the Rhine Valley, it was held responsible for all damages and losses suffered by the Allies, and it was required to pay substantial reparations. In annexed treaties, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Turkey also lost territories. In 1920, the League of Nations was established with the aim of ensuring compliance with treaties, establishing national borders, monitoring arms control, and resolving international disputes diplomatically. However, the League faced significant challenges in achieving its objectives.
Jews Defined as a National Minority
The new states that emerged after the war were founded on the principle of self-determination, meaning that each government was expected to ensure that all its citizens enjoyed equal rights and civic duties. However, this proved difficult in practice, as the new states often included national minorities (segments of the population with different ethnicities, languages, or religions). Respecting their rights meant recognizing their languages, cultures, and religions, while also expecting their loyalty to the interests of the nation, which was a complex task. Jews hoped that the principle of national self-determination would apply to them as well. Despite the high number of Jewish casualties in the war, the Allied powers did not officially recognize their participation in the conflict. In their efforts to organize and fight for political rights in Central and Eastern Europe, Jews established Nationalrats (national councils) to represent Jewish interests. These councils sought to reach agreements with representatives of other national minorities in their respective countries, maintain neutrality in border conflicts, and uphold public order. Jewish communities placed great hope in these councils, believing that their requests would be addressed. They even submitted a petition to be granted representation in the League of Nations.
The Situation of Jews in the New States
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which formed the basis of the Treaty of Versailles, aimed to preserve national independence, foster cooperation among nations, and promote world peace. However, implementing these principles proved challenging. No country was fully satisfied with its borders or territories, and conflicts continued to erupt. The newly independent states were formed based on the principle of self-determination, which was interpreted as the right of each nation to have its own sovereign state. Attempts were made to address the issue of national minorities in the region, but this led to economic problems.