The Lexicon of Castilian: Evolution and Influences
The Lexicon of Castilian
1. Lexical-Semantic Level
The basic lexical unit is the lexeme, the foundation of the word. Lexemes are monemes with full meaning. The study of the lexicon involves lexicology (inventory and classification of lexical units, dictionary development) and semantics (study of meaning). These are intertwined, hence the term “lexical-semantic level.”
2. Formation of the Lexicon of Castilian
Castilian originates from Latin, but other languages have also influenced its lexicon. Loanwords are incorporated from other languages because the lexicon is constantly evolving, adding neologisms and eliminating archaic words.
2.1 Pre-Roman Period
Before the Romans arrived in 218 BC, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by various peoples whose languages formed the linguistic substratum for Latin. Four main areas existed: Tartessian (south), Iberian (east), Celtic (west and center), and Cantabropirenaica (north). Except for Basque, these languages disappeared under Roman rule, leaving few traces.
2.2 The Romans
From 218 BC, the Romanization of the Iberian Peninsula began, culminating in 19 BC. This process wasn’t uniform; the east and south romanized faster than the west and north. Vulgar Latin, spoken by soldiers and less educated settlers, evolved into various Romance languages.
2.3 The Germanic Influence
Germanic peoples, particularly the Visigoths (5th century), contributed to the evolution of Latin into Romance languages, primarily influencing the lexicon and onomastics (names).
2.4 The Muslim Period
In 711, the Moors arrived, dividing the Peninsula into two areas: the north (Christian refuge, where languages like Galician-Portuguese, Leonese, Castilian, Navarrese-Aragonese, and Basque arose) and the south (dominated by Arabic and Mozarabic). As the Reconquista progressed, Castilian spread south, replacing Arabic. Arabic significantly influenced Castilian, contributing many words starting with “al-” (from the Arabic article) and ending in “-í” (often used in gentiles).
3. The Expansion of Castilian
The Reconquista, particularly the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, expanded Castilian’s prestige and territory.
3.1 Gallicisms
Between the 10th and 13th centuries, French influenced Castilian due to the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela and French involvement in the Reconquista.
3.2 Hellenisms
From the 13th century, under Alfonso X, Castilian became the language of written communication. The Toledo School of Translators introduced Latinisms, Hellenisms, and Arabisms, expanding Castilian’s vocabulary, especially in science and culture.
3.3 Italianisms
The Italian Renaissance (14th-15th centuries) influenced Spanish literature, introducing Italianisms and classical Greco-Roman texts. Cultisms also appeared.
3.4 Americanisms
Key events in the late 15th century (1492): Nebrija’s Spanish Grammar, the end of the Reconquista, and the discovery of America. Castilian became the language of a growing empire and incorporated Americanisms from indigenous languages.
3.5 The Consolidation of Castilian
The Royal Spanish Academy (RAE), founded in 1713, consolidated Castilian, publishing dictionaries and grammars.
4. The Lexicon of Castilian: Latin Roots and Beyond
Latin is the primary source of Castilian vocabulary, evolving through inherited words, cultisms, and semicultisms.
4.1 Patrimonial Words
These words derived from Vulgar Latin and evolved phonetically over time, forming the majority of Spanish vocabulary.
4.2 Cultisms
These words retained their Latin form, with slight modifications, and are common in scientific language.
4.3 Semicultisms
These words fall between patrimonial words and cultisms, influenced by the Church or administration.
4.4 Doublets
These are pairs of words with the same Latin etymology, one patrimonial and one cultism, often with different levels of abstraction.
4.5 Latinisms
Some Latin words and expressions remain unchanged in Castilian.
4.6 Neologisms
New words or expressions are created through derivation, composition, syntagmatic expressions, abbreviations, acronyms, and loanwords (mainly from English).
4.7 Loanwords
Loanwords are either adapted to Spanish phonetics or kept in their original form, often reflecting new realities or concepts.