The Liberal State and Restoration in 19th Century Spain
The Liberal State in 19th Century Spain
Political and Economic Changes
Following the death of Fernando VII in 1833, Spain underwent significant transformations at varying paces. New systems of governance were established, marking a shift towards a more liberal political landscape. However, industrialization progressed slowly and unevenly across the country.
Social and Cultural Developments
Socially, a small landowning minority continued to exploit a large peasant population. Culturally, literature and art flourished, representing the pinnacle of artistic expression during this era.
The Liberal Monarchy under Queen Isabella II
With Queen Isabella II’s ascension, Spain transitioned to a liberal monarchy characterized by:
- A Constitution: Establishing a framework for governance.
- Separation of Powers: Distributing authority among different branches of government.
- Two Political Parties: Moderate and progressive liberals, fostering political discourse.
The Regency Period (1833-1843)
During Isabella II’s minority, regents ruled, beginning with her mother, Maria Cristina. This period witnessed political instability and two significant events:
- The Carlist War: A conflict that ended with a liberal victory and the signing of the Convention of Vergara in 1839.
- The Confiscation (1836-1837): Led by Juan Alvarez de Mendizabal, aiming to reduce debt and improve land exploitation, but with limited success.
The Constitution of 1817, similar to that of 1812, was also promulgated. Maria Cristina left the country in 1840, succeeded by Espartero, who ruled until Isabella II’s proclamation of age at 13.
The Reign of Queen Isabella II (1843-1868)
Isabella II’s reign encompassed three distinct periods:
- Moderate Decade (1844-1854): Dominated by Narvaez, with a new constitution in 1845.
- Progressive Biennium (1854-1856): Led by Espartero, featuring a new disentailment in 1855.
- Alternation of Power (1856-1868): Between moderate and progressive liberals, marked by growing army intervention in politics and the emergence of new political groups like Democrats and Republicans.
This period also saw the resurgence of the Carlist War in 1846 and growing discontent with electoral practices.
The Revolutionary Six-Year Term (1868-1874)
Following Isabella II’s departure, a provisional government (1868-1870) led by General Serrano was formed. The Constitution of 1869 established Spain as a constitutional monarchy. Amadeo I was chosen as king, establishing a democratic monarchy (1871-1873). However, his reign was short-lived due to opposition from Republicans, Carlists, and monarchists, as well as the ongoing colonial conflict in Cuba.
The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
After Amadeo I’s abdication in 1873, the First Spanish Republic was established. However, it faced internal struggles, including the cantonal uprising, and ultimately failed to maintain order and unity. A military uprising in 1874 led to the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty with Alfonso XII.
The Restoration (1874-1931)
Alfonso XII and the New System
Alfonso XII’s arrival marked the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty and a new constitution that lasted until 1931. Antonio Canovas del Castillo orchestrated the new system, based on:
- Hereditary parliamentary monarchy.
- Establishment of two legislative chambers.
- Promulgation of the Constitution of 1876, more conservative than its predecessor.
- Bipartisanship between conservative and liberal parties.
Challenges and Developments
Alfonso XII’s reign (1874-1885) faced challenges, including opposition from Carlists and Republicans, the resurgence of regionalism, and the growth of the labor movement. Following his death in 1885, Maria Christina of Austria served as regent until her son, Alfonso XIII, came of age in 1902. The restoration continued during this period, but the Disaster of ’98, which saw Spain lose its overseas colonies, had a profound impact.
Economy and Society
Agriculture and Industrialization
Agriculture remained the foundation of the Spanish economy. Cereal and vine production increased in the mid-19th century but later suffered from a phylloxera crisis. Industrialization was slow and limited, with furniture and steel being the most prominent industries. Catalonia, Vizcaya, and Asturias emerged as the primary industrial centers.
Social Structure and Conflicts
Spanish society evolved throughout the 19th century, characterized by distinct classes: the oligarchy, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, and the working class. The working class faced harsh conditions, including long working hours, low wages, and poor living conditions, leading to social unrest. Two main ideological trends emerged within the labor movement: socialism, represented by the PSOE and UGT, and anarchism, organized through unions.
Culture and Art
Education and Literature
Education saw increased state involvement, challenging the Church’s traditional dominance. Romanticism, realism, modernism, and the Generation of ’98 were the major literary trends of the time.
Music and Architecture
In music, Isaac Albeniz, Enrique Granados, and Manuel de Falla gained prominence. Architecture saw the development of eclecticism, historicism, and modernism. Sculpture embraced realism, with artists like Ricardo Bellver and Mariano Benlliure, and modernism, with Josep Llimona. Painting featured romanticism, represented by Federico de Madrazo and Valeriano Dominguez Becquer, realism with Ramon Marti Alsina, and history painting with José Casado del Alisal.