The Moroccan Issue and Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Problem of Morocco
In July 1921, during a campaign aimed at extending Spanish control around Melilla, the Spanish suffered a major defeat at Annual. The Spanish Rif attacked, resulting in widespread losses throughout the occupied territory. The conflict’s unpopularity led the media to blame the government and the army. The army withdrew from the political class. The report made by General Picasso (file name unknown) caused great debates in the courts and was opposed by the army. Republicans demanded drastic measures, aiming directly at the army and the King. Morocco became a central political issue, but before the report reached the courts, Primo de Rivera staged a coup.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
On September 13th, General Primo de Rivera launched a coup, declared a state of war, opposed constitutional legality, and demanded a transfer of power to the military. This led to a new government exclusively composed of military personnel, initiating a dictatorship that lasted for seven years, divided into the Military Directory and the Civil Directory. The coup was justified by the argument that the constitutional system was blocked and discredited, presenting the coup as a solution. Primo de Rivera’s speech had regenerationist and even moralistic intentions, aiming to rid the country of patronage and political corruption.
The Reorganization of the State
Military Directory (1923-1925):
- Suspension of the constitution.
- Dissolution of legislative bodies.
- Dismissal of civilian authorities.
- Ban on political and union activities.
- Militarization of social order and repression of radical labor movements.
To dismantle regional despotism, municipal councils were dissolved and replaced, presented as part of a regenerationist effort. However, not all promises were fulfilled, and electoral mechanisms and political renewal only replaced some leaders with others. Rivera took on the Moroccan problem himself, allying with France. In 1927, Spanish troops completed the occupation of the protectorate.
Civil Directory (1925-1930):
The government created a National Consultative Assembly with an authoritarian and corporate character, setting aside universal suffrage.
Economic and Social Policies
The dictatorship benefited from the favorable economic climate of the 1920s. It implemented nationalist and dirigiste policies, combining state interventionism with the boosting of industrial development. Public works were promoted, and a decree protecting domestic industry was adopted. Monopolies were granted to companies like Telefónica and CAMPSA, leading to indebtedness that contributed to the crisis of 1929. To combat this, a National Corporate Organization was established to regulate labor relations, creating joint committees composed of equal numbers of employers and workers to regulate wages and working conditions. These were supported by the UGT (General Union of Workers).
Opposition to the Dictatorship
Opposition was formed by:
- Old leaders of the turno parties, who criticized the excessive length of the regime, and some participated in military conspiracies.
- The Republican Alliance, which united various factions of the movement and developed a broad propaganda campaign.
- Intellectuals, who confronted the regime’s cultural policies.
- The CNT (National Confederation of Labor) and the FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation), which opposed the regime and favored insurrection.
- The PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party), which rejected the regime’s attempts and advocated for the Republic.
Fall of the Dictator
Over time, the situation deteriorated. Primo de Rivera proved unable to reconcile the civilian and military monarchist factions. Alfonso XIII withdrew his trust in him, leading to the dictator’s resignation. General Berenguer replaced him, but opposition and discontent continued (leading to the period known as the “Dictablanda” or soft dictatorship). The opposition organized and signed the Pact of San Sebastian, seeking an alternative to the monarchy and creating a revolutionary committee that would become the future provisional government of the Republic. In February 1931, elections were called to give the Cortes a constituent character and return to normality (municipal elections).