The New Deal, Irish Question, and Rise of Fascism
The New Deal in the United States
In the 1930s, the United States faced overproduction and falling prices. Hoover’s policies were ineffective against the depression, leading to slums known as ‘Hoovervilles’. Hoover believed the crisis was temporary. In 1933, Roosevelt won the elections, proposing the New Deal to overcome the crisis. This involved a new economic direction: lowering the dollar, limiting output, raising prices, subsidizing agricultural exports, favoring technological innovation in industry, reforming the banking sector, creating grants and subsidies for the unemployed, designing public works programs, and enacting the Industrial Relations Act to protect union negotiations. Key aspects included breaking with government inhibition and mitigating social effects.
The Irish Question
Irish rebels of Sinn Fein staged the Easter Rising, unsuccessfully proclaiming the Republic of Ireland. Sinn Fein’s victory in elections led to the formation of a parliament, appointing Éamon de Valera as president. The Irish Republican Army increased attacks against British troops, leading to the Government of Ireland Act, which divided Ireland into the Catholic south and the British-ruled north. In 1921, the South was recognized by Britain as the Irish Free State, and in 1937, it proclaimed the Republic of Eire.
Socio-Political Crisis in Italy
After World War I, Italy was plunged into a deep social and political crisis. Key factors included:
- Unrest after World War I
- The crisis of the democratic system in Italy
- The economic crisis
- Labor unrest
- Fear of revolution
The Making of Fascist Power
The rise of fascism began in 1919 when Mussolini founded the first fascist militias. He later created his own party and ran in elections without success. However, he attracted sectors unhappy with the situation in Italy. The growing presence of Communism alarmed traditional sectors. Mussolini advocated for a strong government against communists. In 1921, Mussolini created the National Fascist Party, whose members, the Fasci di Combattimento, violently eliminated communist influence. The fascist Blackshirts were responsible for attacks on workers. In 1922, Mussolini organized the March on Rome, a national rally of Fascists demonstrating their power. Both the army and the king welcomed this show of strength, and the king appointed Mussolini as head of government.
The Struggle for Power in the Soviet Union
After Lenin fell ill, Trotsky and Stalin fought for power, representing different sectors of the Revolution:
- Trotsky believed socialism was impossible without the international labor movement.
- Stalin supported socialism in one country, to strengthen the revolution in Russia and then expand it.
Stalin presented himself as Lenin’s heir and, by allying with old Bolsheviks, was elected his successor, removing Trotsky and Bukharin. After eliminating his rivals, Stalin consolidated his personal power, leading to Stalinism.
Stalinism
The rise of Stalin’s dictatorship deviated from the principles of the Bolshevik revolution. Stalin’s NKVD eliminated the old Bolshevik guard through false accusations and executions. The Stalinist state was finalized with the 1936 Constitution.
Stalinist Economy
The economy was state-managed through five-year plans:
- Sustaining accelerated industrialization.
- Forced collectivization through state farms.
Stalin’s rise to power coincided with the Great Depression of 1929. While the capitalist economy was collapsing, Russia continued to grow. Stalinism guaranteed a range of social services.
The Purges
The purges led to millions of deportations and killings:
- Ethnic minorities
- Peasants
- Intellectuals
Those considered enemies of the regime were sent to Siberia, where a system of concentration camps or gulags was established.