The Old Regime and Baroque Art in Spain: 15th-18th Centuries

Posted on Dec 10, 2024 in Arts and Humanities

The Old Regime and the Baroque

1. The Absolute Monarchy

The Old Regime is a system that characterizes the economy, politics, society, and European culture between the 15th and 18th centuries, though its fullness is attained in the 17th century.

Characteristics:

Economy based on agriculture and livestock, subject to the cycles of nature.
Capitalist system as complementary, resulting from a resurgence of trade. A new social group emerges: the bourgeoisie.
Society is divided into estates: nobility, clergy, and the third estate.
Nobility and clergy were privileged classes: they were not taxed, occupied important positions, etc. They differ between high and low nobility and high and low clergy.
The third estate is not uniform: bankers, traders, artisans, peasants, and so on. They are creating an ideology.

Absolute Monarchies:

Evolve from authoritarian monarchies of the 15th century.
The Kings are the greatest power in the realms. They are considered “divine right” of being chosen by God to reign.
Bossuet’s political theory justifies that the monarchy is the representation of God on Earth, based on the Scriptures.
They concentrate all power: military, political, legislative, judicial, etc. They do not convene bodies representing the estates (General Estates in France or Cortes in Spain).
They use architectural and artistic images to project their power: palaces, churches, convents, portraits, sculptures, etc.

Examples of absolute monarchy: Louis XIV in France, Philip III and Philip IV in Spain.

2. Reformation and Counter-Reformation

From the late Middle Ages, there were attempts to renew the Church. These increased with the rise of humanism and its critical sense: Erasmus of Rotterdam and The Praise of Folly.
In the 16th century, three factors exacerbated the need for renewal:
- Election of Emperor Charles V over German princes.
- Current European spiritualist movements.
- Papal bulls for the construction of the Vatican in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther

Religious scholar, Doctor of Theology and Philosophy. Professor at the University of Wittenberg. The sale of indulgences through papal bulls led him to establish his 95 theses at the university.

Fundamental Ideas:

Rejection of indulgences as a means of remission of sins.
Rejection of the authority of the Pope and the councils summoned by him, encouraging the nobility to make a religious reform within Germany, with the intention of creating a national Church.
States that salvation is by faith alone, a principle that leads to predestination, the determination of salvation or conviction.
Rejects the sacraments established in the Church, maintaining only baptism and communion. Maintains penance, but removes the right of the church to forgive sins.
Free interpretation of the Scriptures, which led him to translate the New Testament into German.
Waiver of the obligation to celibacy in the priesthood and suppression of religious orders.

Luther was excommunicated and condemned to the stake but was protected by the German princes, who confiscated Church property. The Pope and Emperor Charles V came together to combat them.

Other Reformers:

Zwingli in Switzerland: rejected religious images and celibacy.
Calvin: spread the Reformation through Germany, France, Scotland, and the Netherlands.
Henry VIII: unsuccessfully requested the annulment of his marriage. Through the Act of Supremacy, Parliament made him head of the Anglican Church.

Reformers and Catholics faced each other militarily. Peace was achieved in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg, declaring religious liberty. Given the political, social, and spiritual instability, the Roman Church convened a council in the Italian city of Trent to consolidate its principles, laying the foundations for the Counter-Reformation:

It establishes the superiority of the Pope.
It defines the tenets of faith: Trinity, Incarnation, and transubstantiation. It accentuates the feast of Corpus Christi.
Veneration of sacred images and relics.
It states that works are key as a manifestation of faith.
It requires bishops to reside in their dioceses.
Launch of seminars to improve the education of priests.
It recognizes as a unique interpretation of the Bible the translation of St. Jerome, the Vulgate.

To disseminate new ideas and strengthen papal authority, Ignatius of Loyola created the Jesuit order in 1540.

Baroque Art in Spain

The Baroque was born in Italy as an evolution of the Renaissance and as an expression of absolutism, of the Ancien Regime, and the spirit of Trent.
In Spain, it took place in the 17th century during the reigns of Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II. It is called the Golden Age.

Characteristics of Spanish Baroque:

Influence of the Italian Renaissance, Venetian painting, and Flemish Baroque through Rubens.
Kings are not only patrons but also art collectors, especially Philip IV.
The church becomes the largest customer of the artists, to disseminate lessons and adapt to the spirit of Trent.
High quality of Spanish artists in the Baroque.
Trend in painting towards realism, deepening naturalism.
Predominance of religious themes.
Key production centers: Madrid, the center of the court, and Seville, the monopoly of trade with America.

Zurbarán (1598-1664)

Born in Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz.
Brings the mystical spirit of religious orders.
Tendency towards volumetric geometry.
Sets up in Seville, called by the council.
Painted sets for convents and monasteries with scenes from the lives of the saints of the order.
Moved to Madrid, and Philip IV commissioned a series on the Labors of Hercules, in allusion to the work of the monarchy, and a series of military victories.
Returned to Seville and painted sets for the Carthusians of Seville and Jerez. Returned to Madrid, where he died.

Key Works:

Series for religious orders:
- Dominicans of San Pablo in Seville.
- Merced Calzada de Sevilla.
- Franciscans of St. Bonaventure.
- Carthusians in Jerez.
- Jeronimos Guadalupe.
- La Cartuja: San Bruno before the Pope, St. Hugh in the Refectory.
Tables of devotion:
- Virgin Girl.
- Jesus Pricking Himself Making a Crown of Thorns.
- Mystic Lamb.
- Portraits “to the divine.”
- Still lifes.
- Apostles.

Style:

Stark drawing.
Influence of tenebrism.
Spirituality and dramatization.
Geometric tendency.

Ribera (1591-1652)

Called “Spagnoletto” in Italy, where he lived.
Born in Játiva, Valencia in 1591. Settled in Naples and remained there until his death in 1652.
Created a school of painting in Naples. The works were sent to Spain and influenced Spanish painters of the time.

Major Works:

The Taste.
Calvary, the Collegiate Church of Osuna.
Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew.
Collection of philosophers and sages.
The Bearded Lady.
Piety and Communion of the Apostles.

Style:

Met with Classicism and added the tenebrism of Caravaggio.
Provided a classical sense to his works.
Naturalism: representation of the deformed or ugly.
Elegance in his characters.
Dramatic impact of characters.

Velázquez (1599-1660)

Represents the peak of Spanish painting of the Golden Age.

Features:

Command of painting technique: good use of drawing and wise use of color.
Major cultural background that makes his works of high complexity in interpretation.
Aerial perspective.

Life and Work:

Born in Seville in 1599.
Trained with Herrera the Elder and Francisco Pacheco, who was his father-in-law.

Sevillian Stage Works:

Old Woman Cooking Eggs.
Water Seller of Seville.
Christ in the House of Martha and Mary.
Adoration of the Magi.
He moved to Madrid, called by the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of Philip IV, and became court painter.
The Drunkards.
Portrait of Philip IV.
Traveled to Italy in 1625: Impact of Italian art and Venetian painting:
- The Forge of Vulcan.
Royal Portraits: Philip IV, Isabella of Spain.
Surrender of Breda (The Lances).
Philosophers: Menippus, Aesop.
Dwarfs and jesters.
Christ Crucified.
Coronation of the Virgin.
1648: Second trip to Italy:
- Landscape of Villa Medici.
- Portrait of Innocent X.
Tour of Spain: Las Meninas.
The Spinners.

Murillo (1617-1682)

Born in Seville and resided in this city all his life.
Created high-impact models.
Trained by Juan del Castillo, though he had influences from Herrera and Zurbarán.

Stages:

First or cold period: Strong contrasts of light and shadow and dominance of the drawing:
- Tables for the convent of San Francisco.
- The Holy Family with the Little Bird.
Second season or warm period: Influence of Herrera the Younger, who introduced the colorful Italian painting:
- San Antonio, for the Cathedral of Seville.
- Tables for Santa Maria la Blanca in Seville.
- Most of the altarpiece of the Capuchins of Seville.
Third time or vaporous:
- Side altarpieces of the Capuchins in Seville.
- Tables for the church of Charity of Seville.

Characteristics:

Creator of models that had much success:
- Immaculate Conception.
- Christ Child: Good Shepherd, Children of the Shell, and so on.
- Scenes of popular types: Children Playing Dice, Melon Eaters, Women on the Balcony.
Kindness in representations.
Importance of fluency in drawing and color application.

The Imagers: Gregorio Fernández, Martínez Montañés, Alonso Cano

Characteristics of Spanish Baroque Sculpture:

Imaging.
Use of the altarpiece.
Generalization of religious themes.
Great sense of decorum and to move to pity.
Two outbreaks:
- Castilian School: dramatic pathos.
- Andalusian School: serenity and balance.

Castilian School: Gregorio Fernández (1576-1636)

Born in Galicia, settled in Valladolid, where the court resided. Received orders from Castile and northern Spain.
Rejected images of high drama to convince the viewer.
Represented martyrdom with the most dramatic scenes.
Great volumetry in cloths.
Extreme naturalism.
Contrast between the soft and stiff body panels.
Created models:
- Immaculate Conception.
- Piety.
- Christ Tied to the Column.

Andalusian School: Martínez Montañés (1568-1649)

Born in Alcalá la Real, Jaén-Granada, and trained in the studio of Pablo de Rojas.
Settled in Seville, where he achieved fame, being called “the god of wood” or “Andalusian Lysippus” for the balance and perfection of his works.
Worked with Francisco Pacheco, building carved altarpieces and sculptures.

Works:

Altarpieces:
- Santa Clara de Sevilla.
- Immaculate Conception, the Cathedral of Seville.
Works for oratories and processions:
- Child Jesus, the Church of the Sagrario in Seville.
- Christ of Mercy, now in Seville Cathedral.
- Jesus of the Passion, in Seville.
- Images of clothing: San Ignacio de Loyola and San Francisco de Borja.

Characteristics of his Style:

Technical mastery.
Great formal balance.

Alonso Cano (1601-1667)

Architect, sculptor, and painter.
Born in Granada and moved to Seville, where he worked with Pacheco.
Moved to Madrid, where his wife was murdered.
Stayed in Valencia.
Ordained and held positions in the Cathedral of Granada.