The Old Regime and the Industrial Revolution: A Historical Overview

Posted on Oct 24, 2024 in Geography

The Old Regime: Trade and Society

Overseas Trade

In the 18th century, overseas trade flourished, reaching the Americas, Asia, and Africa, where colonies were established for trade advantages. The possession of colonies became a focal point of conflict within Europe. These overseas states were controlled by European monarchs under the mercantilist economic system. The East India Company and the West India Company were created to manage trade with the East and West Indies, respectively. The importance of banks and stock exchanges increased, leading to the development of credit, bills of exchange, and paper money.

Estamental Society

Old Regime society was divided into estates. The nobility and clergy were the privileged classes, while the rest of society lacked such privileges.

  • The Nobility: Nobility was typically inherited, though the King could grant titles as payment for services. Nobles possessed lands from which they collected rents, were exempt from taxes, and enjoyed legal protections.
  • The Clergy: The clergy also held wealth and land, collecting rents and paying no taxes. They were divided into the high clergy (archbishops, bishops, cardinals, abbots, and canons) who often came from noble families, and the lower clergy (priests, friars, monks) who lacked wealth and land but still held legal privileges.
  • The Non-Privileged: This group, comprising 80% of the population, included artisans, traders, and farmers. In France, they were called the Third Estate. They paid taxes and lacked the privileges of the upper estates. In some European countries, farmers were tied to the land. Some artisans and merchants accumulated wealth, giving rise to the bourgeoisie. Despite their growing fortunes, their social status remained inferior, and upward mobility between estates was impossible. The bourgeoisie was excluded from political power but often emulated the nobility and sought connections through marriages with impoverished noble families.

The Industrial Revolution

Pioneering Sectors

  1. The Textile Industry: The cotton industry expanded, fueled by cotton plantations in the British North American colonies. Kay’s invention of the flying shuttle in 1733 multiplied thread demand, and factories increased production.
  2. The Steel Industry: Iron was used to manufacture agricultural tools and stoves. Darby discovered that coal could be used to melt iron, and Cort’s puddling system removed impurities, enabling England to become a major iron producer and exporter. The expansion of the railway system further fueled this growth.
  3. The Railway: The steam engine revolutionized transportation, leading to the construction of 10,000 km of track. This attracted investments, boosted other industries like coal and iron, and lowered the price of goods.

Energy Sources

  • Electricity: Gramme’s invention of the dynamo in the late 19th century, along with the transformer, alternator, generator, and electric motor, revolutionized street lighting, industrial machinery, and long-distance communication (telephone and telegraph).
  • Oil: Distillation and refining of oil produced gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and fuel oil. The invention of the combustion engine and its application to automobiles contributed to industrial concentration, leading to the formation of powerful networks like Standard Oil Company.

From National Assembly to the Directory

Members of the Third Estate met at the Jeu de Paume and swore to create a constitution for France. Following the storming of the Bastille in 1789 and popular revolts, the bourgeoisie began constructing a new state. They proclaimed the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, separated church and state, and established a constitutional monarchy. A Jacobin uprising led to the National Convention and a radical period, culminating in the execution of Louis XVI and the proclamation of a republic. Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety defended the nation. In 1793, a new constitution introduced universal male suffrage. The Reign of Terror followed. In 1794, a coup established a republic controlled by the moderate bourgeoisie. A new constitution in 1795 transferred executive power to a five-member Directory.

Unification of Italy

In the early 19th century, Italy was divided into several states. The Risorgimento, a movement supported by the bourgeoisie, aimed to foster national sentiment and create a unified, moderate Italy. Cavour, minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, and Garibaldi led the unification process. Cavour incorporated Lombardy in 1859. Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Romagna, and Umbria joined Piedmont-Sardinia. Garibaldi conquered Naples and Sicily, expelling the Bourbons. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy. Veneto joined in 1866, and Rome became the capital in 1870.

Absolutism and other forms of government

Absolutism

In the 18th century, monarchs ruled under the principle of absolute sovereignty. The state was identified with the King, legitimized by divine right. Natural and customary law, along with the influence of the nobility and clergy, could limit royal power.

The English Parliament

: Since 1688 in England a monarchy ruled Parlamentaria.El Parliament was the legislature and elected the prime minister who was the executive. Parliament was divided into the House of Lords, consisting of the nobility and the clergy and the House of Commons, formed by the lower nobility and high burguesía.Los mienbros of the House of Commons were elected by limited suffrage male . In order to belong to the Parliament had to have a high income.
Enlightened Despotism: The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers and scientists, question the social, political and economic Regimen A.. Whereas equality and tolerance should be the foundation of human relations, ideas that influenced some European monarchs. Enlightened Despotism is a form of government, whose mission was to use the absolute power to make all the enlightened ministers subditos.Los were responsible for modernizing agriculture, promoting culture, arts …. only had relevance in administrativsas reforms.
The on Plate: surge in the s. XVIII, philosophical movement, literary cientifico.La basis of Enlightenment thought was right, believed that man was born to be happy. They felt that it was right that he agreed with the naturaleza.estas ideas spread through books, newspapers and talk shows