The Origin and Evolution of Metaphysics and Humanity
Item 5: Exploring Metaphysics
1. Origin of Metaphysical Terms
The term “metaphysics” originates from the edition of Aristotle’s works held in Rome, organized by Andronicus during the late Roman Republic. Placed after the physical works, “metaphysics” literally means “after physics” (or “beyond physics”), addressing the fundamental question: “What is reality?”
2. Understanding Metaphysics
Metaphysics corresponds to Aristotle’s “first philosophy,” which explores the first principles and causes of reality. This interpretation aligns with the title “Metaphysics” given by Andronicus of Rhodes to the works placed after physics. The core question of metaphysics—whether reality is matter, spirit, or both—is a central theme of first philosophy. It considers realities beyond the physical, delving into the metaphysical realm.
3. Defining Ontology
In 1613, Goclenius published a philosophical lexicon introducing the terms “psychology” and “ontology.” Ontology, a branch of metaphysics, focuses on the study of being and related concepts, excluding God and souls.
4. The Concept of Field
The concept of “field” is complex and distinct from its common usage. Matter is not equivalent to body, and energy is a complementary aspect. Matter and energy are incompatible concepts, representing two facets of the same reality.
5. Heraclitus’ Materialism
Heraclitus of Ephesus formulated a radical materialism, evident in these fragments:
- Fragment 30: This world, which is the same for all, no man or god has made, but it always was and is and shall be: an ever-living fire, kindling in measures and going out in measures.
- Fragment 53: War is the father of all and king of all, and some he shows as gods, others as men; some he makes slaves, others free.
6. Democritus’ Atomism
Democritus of Abdera founded the atomistic school, an alternative to materialism. This concept, embraced by the Epicurean school, offered an explanation of reality at a level beyond observation.
7. G. Well’s Philosophical Materialism
This teaching on the structure of reality opposes materialistic monism and idealism. It emphasizes philosophical pluralism and rejects the reduction of reality to empirical experience.
8. Three Genera of Material
Philosophical materialism distinguishes three types of matter:
- Primogenérica Matter: Corporeal (e.g., sensed objects) or incorporeal (e.g., electromagnetic fields).
- Segundogenérica Matter: Operations of subjects (e.g., memories, desires, wills).
- Tercigenerica Matter: Expressive relationships in generic fields.
9. Berkeley’s Concept of Matter
Berkeley’s metaphysical view affirms a transcendent reality. He argues that the reality of bodies lies in their being perceived, leading to the famous dictum “To be is to be perceived.” Only God (the infinite spirit) and human souls (finite spirits) exist.
10. Pythagorean Dualism
Pythagoras of Samos posited a dualistic view of humanity, composed of body and soul. The soul, pre-existing birth, is spiritual, while the body belongs to the material world. Material desires can contaminate the soul.
11. Plato’s Three Substances
Plato proposed three substances:
- The real world.
- The world of souls (incorporeal).
- The world of ideas (existing independently).
12. Christian Trisustantialism
Christianity posits three substances: God, souls (including angels), and the material world. The distinctness of these substances ensures free will, responsibility, and appropriate consequences.
13. Critique of Creation Ex Nihilo
The concept of creation from nothing is challenged. Creation involves giving form within a field, an externalization. The “nothing” clause obscures the inherent absurdity of creation with otherness.
14. Critique of Christian Trisustantialism
If substances exist in separate worlds, they evolve independently without interaction. However, if God, finite spirits, and the world interact, they must be subclasses of a higher, encompassing reality.
15. Critique of Berkeley’s Spiritual Dualism
If God and spirits interact, they are parts of the same reality. This leads to two possibilities: spiritual idealism (all is God) or strict materialism (all is matter).
Item 6: Primate and Human Evolution
1. Characteristics of Primates
Primates emerged around 65 million years ago. These arboreal mammals possess five-toed limbs, opposable thumbs, flat nails, and 32-36 teeth. Binocular and stereoscopic color vision allows for depth perception. Prehensile hands enable grasping branches and food. Primates are divided into strepsirrhines and haplorhines.
2. Characteristics of Hominoids
Hominoids, appearing 25 million years ago, include apes, hominids, and homos. They have flat chests, longer arms than legs, elongated hands, reduced lumbar regions, and an erect posture.
3. Characteristics of Apes
Apes emerged between 7 and 5 million years ago. They are omnivorous, live in groups, and exhibit similarities to humans. Examples include:
- New World monkeys: spider monkey, howler monkey.
- Old World monkeys: macaques, baboons.
- Ponoyioles: orangutan, chimpanzee, gorilla.
- Hominids: humans (Homo sapiens).
4. Australopithecus
Australopithecus, appearing over 4 million years ago, had a relatively small cranial capacity (around 475 cm³) and massive jaws. The key innovation was bipedalism, facilitated by changes in the pelvis and hind limbs. Their brain size was similar to modern great apes, and they lived in tropical Africa, feeding on fruits and leaves. A branch of Australopithecus eventually led to Homo sapiens.
5. Bipedalism
Bipedalism, the ability to walk upright, is a defining human characteristic. It evolved as an adaptation to the environment, offering advantages over quadrupedal locomotion.
6. Homo habilis
Homo habilis, the first identified Homo species, lived in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. With a larger brain than Australopithecus (around 619 grams), they inhabited more open environments and were the first to carve stone tools for meat consumption. They were habitual meat eaters.
7. Homo ergaster
Homo ergaster, found in Eritrea, Kenya, and South Africa, lived between 1.8 and 1.4 million years ago. Their body proportions are similar to modern humans, with a cranial volume of 800-900 cm³. They used Acheulean tools and were hunters or scavengers in open environments.
8. Homo erectus
Homo erectus, possibly a descendant of Homo ergaster, migrated to Asia. They had a similar cranial volume (800-950 cm³). Homo erectus fossils in China show larger cranial volumes (915-1225 cm³). They did not master Acheulean technology.
9. Homo antecessor
Homo antecessor, discovered in Atapuerca, Spain, challenges the previous belief about human arrival in Europe. With a cranial volume of 1000 cm³, they may be an ancestor of both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.
10. Homo neanderthalensis
Neanderthals were robust, muscular hominids adapted to cold climates. They had a large cranial volume (1500 cm³), were skilled hunters and gatherers, used Mode 3 tools, and practiced burial rituals.
11. Cro-Magnon and Human Expansion
Early humans appeared in the Middle East 90,000 years ago, reaching South Africa and Australia. They developed Mode 4 tools and expanded across the globe.