The Origins and Evolution of Sociological Theory
1. The Origins of Sociological Theory
Background: The Greeks – Plato and Aristotle
While the origins of sociological theory are often traced to Revolutionary France (late 18th century), the roots of Western thought lie in ancient Greece. In Miletus, at the end of the 7th and beginning of the 6th century BC, the first physicists emerged, often speculating on the nature of reality. Key figures in ancient Greece include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Plato
In his work, The Republic, Book VII presents the Allegory of the Cave, illustrating the difference between the educated and uneducated. Those chained in the cave, unaware of the outside world, are limited to observing shadows, mistaking them for reality.
More significantly, in The Laws, his extensive work on aging, Plato argues for the first time in history that all citizens, to the extent possible, should be educated on a mandatory basis, belonging more to the city than to their own parents. Plato’s concern for education led him to found the Academy.
Aristotle
In his Politics, Aristotle makes errors, such as justifying slavery. However, in Book VIII, he presents his theory of education, offering a brief catalog of the school curriculum subjects of his time.
The Emergence of Sociology in France: Saint-Simon and Comte
Sociology as a science emerged in Revolutionary France, though its historical roots run deeper.
A crucial source for this period is Tocqueville, who can be considered a father of sociology. His two important works are: Democracy in America and The Old Regime and the Revolution.
The discovery of America also played a significant role, expanding the known world.
Later, in Salamanca, Father Vitoria questioned the Spanish right to conquer the West Indies. He proposed that all men are people, all nations are equal, and that the Indians, the true owners of their lands, could not be enslaved. He founded the law of nations, or international law.
When Europeans returned to the old continent, they saw Europe in a new light, questions were asked, and a crisis of conscience ensued.
Finally, the proclamation of independence by the thirteen American colonies led to the great Revolution of 1789.
Dilthey states that European society after the French Revolution was fundamentally different, with increased industry and growth. When workers tried to understand these changes, they attempted to create a new theory: “the science of society.”
Saint-Simon
Saint-Simon is one of the most lucid witnesses of the Revolution. He fully realized the moral and political disorder that France was still experiencing in 1820. He believed that industrialists and wise men should govern.
Comte
A disciple of Saint-Simon, Comte invented the word “sociology.” He is known for the Law of the Three Stages, which explains that the human spirit has progressed through three phases:
- Theological Stage: Dominated by gods, with imagination prevailing over reason. Its three phases are fetishism, polytheism, and monotheism.
- Metaphysical Stage: A transitional phase, seeking to understand the “why” of things in nature.
- Positive Stage: The final stage, where observation dominates.
According to Comte, humans are theologians in their infancy, metaphysicians in their youth, and positivists in adulthood.
Durkheim: The Rules of Sociological Method
Continuing in France and moving to the end of the 19th century, we consider Durkheim. His first three books were:
- The Division of Labor in Society, which showed that mechanical solidarity gave way to organic solidarity.
- The Rules of Sociological Method, which states that social facts, external to individuals, should be treated as things. The sociologist must adopt the same state of mind as physicists, chemists, or physiologists.
- Suicide, which demonstrates that even the most personal act, suicide, is a social fact correlated with sex, marital status, or religious affiliation. Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie (a regular and specific factor in suicide).