The Political System of the Restoration (1874-1898)
A New Political System
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo aimed to create a new political model, not a return to the era of Isabella II. His goal was to address the issues of liberalism. His objectives were twofold: to develop a constitution establishing a bipartisan political system and to pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict. The first step was convening elections for a Constituent Cortes.
The Constitution of 1876
This constitution reflects doctrinaire liberalism, characterized by census suffrage and shared sovereignty between the Cortes and the monarchy. The King was considered a superior, unquestionable, permanent, and independent institution. Shared sovereignty granted broad powers to both the monarch and the bicameral Cortes, consisting of the Senate and the Congress of Deputies. Initially, the Congress was elective with census suffrage (1878), which changed to universal male suffrage in 1890. The Constitution also proclaimed a Catholic confessional state, while tolerating other beliefs. It included a Bill of Rights.
Bipartisanship and Peace
Cánovas’ government introduced a system based on bipartisanship and the alternation of power. This system involved a peaceful transfer of power between two dynastic parties, ensuring institutional stability and ending military intervention in political life.
The End of the Wars
Regime stability was strengthened by the end of the Carlist Wars and the Cuban War. Military efforts reduced Carlist presence in Catalonia. Martínez Campos led the military intervention that forced the Carlists’ surrender in Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia, although the conflict continued for a few months in the Basque Country and Navarre. The Carlist defeat led to the abolition of the Basque fueros. The regime granted some fiscal autonomy to the Basque provinces through economic agreements (Conciertos Económicos). The end of the Carlist War facilitated the end of the Ten Years’ War (1868-1878) in Cuba with the Peace of Zanjón. However, the delay or failure of reforms led to renewed conflict in 1879 (Little War) and the insurrection of 1895.
Political Life and Alternation in Power
The Dynastic Parties
With Alfonso XII’s return, Cánovas’ Conservative Party and Sagasta’s Liberal Party formed the bipartisan system. Both parties defended the monarchy, private property, and a unitary, centralist liberal state. They had newspapers, distribution centers, and committees throughout Spain. Their differences were subtle. Conservatives favored census suffrage, defending the Church and social order. Liberals advocated for universal male suffrage and were more inclined towards social reform and a secular state. The regular alternation of power aimed to ensure institutional stability.
Election Distortion and Caciquismo
Election manipulation was common practice. The party calling the election, having been asked to form a government, often secured victory through caciquismo. Caciques (local bosses), often wealthy landowners, influenced voters through patronage, rewarding loyalty and discriminating against those who opposed them. This system facilitated the falsification of election results, known as electoral fraud.
Development of the Party System
In 1884, Cánovas returned to power. Fear of destabilization after Alfonso XII’s death led to the Pact of El Pardo between Conservatives and Liberals. Under the regency, the Liberal Party governed longer. Sagasta’s government (1885-1890) implemented reforms: the Right of Association Act (1887), the abolition of slavery (1888), trial by jury, a new Civil Code (1889), and agricultural and military reforms.
Marginal Political Forces
The Evolution of Republicanism
Emilio Castelar’s republicanism became more moderate. Believing in the Restoration’s ability to maintain order, he founded the Possibilist Republican Party. Ruiz Zorrilla, advocating radical republicanism, founded the Progressive Republican Party. Salmerón broke with Ruiz Zorrilla to create the Centralist Republican Party (1887). The Federal Republican Party, led by Pi y Margall, maintained its original ideology and had working-class support. The Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) was founded in 1879 by Pablo Iglesias.
Reconversion of Carlism
Cándido Nocedal led the Carlists, maintaining strongholds in Navarre, the Basque Country, and Catalonia. Juan Vázquez de Mella proposed a modernized program (Act of Loredan). Ramón Nocedal, rejecting Don Carlos as king, founded the Integrist Party (1888), a Catholic fundamentalist party.
The Emergence of Nationalism and Regionalism
Catalan Nationalism
The Renaixença (Renaissance) aimed to revive Catalan language and identity. Bishop Torras i Bages represented the traditionalist current. Valentí Almirall promoted a progressive, grassroots, federalist current, founding the Centre Català (1882), which advocated for Catalan autonomy. The Bases de Manresa (1892) consolidated Catalan political identity. Regionalism evolved into nationalism. Enric Prat de la Riba and Francesc Cambó founded the Regionalist League (Lliga Regionalista) in 1901, achieving electoral success in the early 20th century.
Basque Nationalism
Sabino Arana, concerned about the impact of immigration on Basque culture, founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) in 1895. He popularized the name Euskadi, a flag, and the slogan “God and Old Laws.”
Overseas War
Cuba, the Pearl of the Antilles
After the Peace of Zanjón (1878), reforms granting equal rights and representation in the Spanish Cortes were expected. The Autonomist Party (mostly Cubans) and the Constitutional Union (Spanish) were formed. Administrative ineffectiveness fueled the desire for independence. José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party (1893), gaining support, especially from the US. In 1891, Spain raised tariffs on non-Spanish imports, impacting the Cuban economy, which relied on sugar and tobacco exports to the US.
The Great Insurrection
The Little War (1879) was a failed insurrection. The Grito de Baire (1895) launched a widespread uprising. Cánovas sent General Martínez Campos, who was replaced by General Valeriano Weyler, who implemented harsh repression. After Cánovas’ assassination, the Liberal government replaced Weyler with General Blanco, who pursued conciliation to avoid conflict with the US. A rebellion also occurred in the Philippines in 1896, with the Liga Filipina (José Rizal) and the Katipunan.
Consequences of the Disaster of ’98
The Restoration system survived, but the crisis fueled nationalist movements. It was primarily a moral and ideological crisis. The Regenerationist movement, led by Joaquín Costa, advocated for reform. Post-1898 governments implemented minimal changes. Growing militarism and authoritarianism culminated in Primo de Rivera’s coup (1923) and Franco’s dictatorship (1939).