The Protestant Reformation: A Religious and Political Transformation
The Pre-Reformation World
The rise of political theories and the establishment of national monarchies gradually diminished the Pope’s control and influence over Christendom. This decline was so significant that the Pope struggled to unite Christian princes against the threat of the Muslim Ottoman Turks. The Pope’s temporal power was limited to the Papal States in the Italian peninsula. Maintaining these territories required political maneuvering, as various European states vied for hegemony in Italy, threatening the Papal States’ independence. This precarious situation likely contributed to the election of Italian Popes, as foreign Popes might compromise the stability of the Papal States. The clergy had also lost some of the religious fervor that characterized the Middle Ages. Many bishops were ordained just before assuming their positions, others engaged in political activities, and most lived luxuriously, contrasting sharply with the poverty and rigor of monastic life. These issues created a deep chasm between the Church’s spiritual goals and the behavior of its leaders.
Luther’s Reformation
Indulgences and the Birth of Protestantism
This atmosphere of crisis set the stage for a reform movement that quickly escalated from a religious matter into a political one. In 1517, Pope Leo X, seeking to fund the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica, granted indulgences. Indulgences offered spiritual benefits, such as forgiveness of sins or remission of time in Purgatory, in exchange for alms to the Church. This practice had become scandalous, and Martin Luther denounced it. On October 31, 1517, he posted his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the University of Wittenberg. These theses challenged not only the irregularities of indulgences but also the Church’s authority to grant them, venturing into heresy. Pope Leo X attempted to persuade Luther to retract his statements, sending papal legate Karl von Miltitz to Leipzig to discuss the matter. The meeting proved fruitless; Luther broadened his attack, denying the authority of both the Pope and Church councils. Consequently, Pope Leo X excommunicated him.
Martin Luther and His Doctrine
Born in Eisleben in 1483, Luther studied at the University of Erfurt and joined the Augustinian Order in 1505. By 1512, he held the Chair of Theology at the University of Wittenberg. A man of troubled conscience, Luther saw a stark contrast between the clergy’s preached morality and the opulent lives of some monks and bishops. This observation sparked his reformist attitude, which quickly evolved into vehement attacks against the Church and the Pope. He viewed papal authority as detrimental to Christianity, arguing that the Pope should be subject to the judgment of the community of believers. Central to Luther’s thought was the belief that salvation comes from God alone. He proposed a covenant of faith between the believer and God, through which true belief grants forgiveness of sins. Luther argued that good works were merely external displays of honoring God and that true compassion stemmed from deep faith. Therefore, faith alone was sufficient for salvation. Key tenets of Lutheran doctrine include: the belief that humanity is inherently incapable of self-salvation due to original sin; the rejection of good works as necessary for salvation; the assertion that the righteous are saved by faith alone, contradicting Catholic doctrine; the proclamation of free inquiry and individual interpretation of scripture; the rejection of Church tradition and papal authority; the modification of sacraments, recognizing only Baptism and Eucharist; and the denial of indulgences and Purgatory.
Expansion of Lutheranism in Germany
Following Emperor Maximilian’s death, the imperial crown of Germany passed to Charles V, grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. A staunch ally of the Pope and defender of the Church, Charles V summoned the Diet of Worms in 1521 to demand Luther’s retraction. Luther refused, and an imperial edict condemned him to exile. Luther found refuge in Wartburg Castle, but his ideas had already spread throughout Germany. Southern burghers and later northern nobles became fervent supporters. The Reformation offered princes an opportunity to seize Church property, increasing their power and influence over their subjects. Engaged in war with Francis I of France, Charles V could not immediately act against the rebellious German princes who embraced Lutheranism. The Diet of Speyer in 1529 decreed that Lutheranism would be tolerated in existing regions but prohibited from spreading further, pending a Church council. Lutherans protested this decision, earning them the name “Protestants.” In 1530, Charles V convened the Diet of Augsburg, seeking a peaceful resolution, but reconciliation failed. In 1531, Lutheran German princes formed the Schmalkaldic League in opposition to the Emperor. Lutheranism continued to gain ground until 1544, when the French-Spanish war ended, allowing Charles V to defeat the Schmalkaldic League at the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. However, the Ottoman threat prevented him from fully suppressing the Lutherans. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) finally recognized Lutheran authority in their established territories. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, his religion) dictated that each region adopt the majority religion of its prince. Lutheranism subsequently spread rapidly across northern and central Europe.
The Reformation Outside Germany
After Luther’s death in 1546, Protestant movements diversified. Ulrich Zwingli, a priest in Zurich, modified Luther’s ideas, politicizing the Gospel. Influenced by Luther and Zwingli, John Calvin established the most uncompromising form of Protestantism in Geneva. Calvinism advocated strict control over public and private life based on religious principles. A key Calvinist doctrine was predestination, the belief that God preordains who is saved and who is damned, regardless of their actions. This belief fostered fanaticism among Calvinists, who recognized only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments.