The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation
The Rise of Heresies and Religious Individuality in the 14th Century
The Crisis of the 14th Century
The long crisis of the 14th century, marked by famine, plague, and the Hundred Years’ War, profoundly impacted the mentality and behavior of Europeans. In the realm of religion, extreme behaviors emerged, ranging from exaggerated apocalyptic beliefs to skepticism and heresy. The Church experienced a period of division (schism) with two competing popes in the West: one in Rome and another in Avignon.
Moral Decline of the Clergy
The moral conduct of the clergy deviated significantly from Christian principles. Popes and priests lived in luxury, often had wives and children despite vows of chastity, exploited the poor through tithes, misused Church property, and engaged in corruption and frivolous behavior. High-ranking Church officials treated the Church as a secular state, participating in wars and political disputes with princes and kings.
Early Critics of the Church
In response to these developments, many parishioners began to voice their criticisms publicly. Heresy gained traction across Europe, with significant movements in England and Bohemia led by John Wycliffe and Jan Hus, respectively. Wycliffe, a professor at Oxford University, translated the Bible into English and challenged papal authority, the worship of saints, and the veneration of relics. Hus, a disciple of Wycliffe and rector of Prague University, openly opposed papal authority and advocated a return to the teachings of the Bible and Holy Scripture.
Humanist Critics and the Modern Devotion Movement
Humanists like Erasmus of Rotterdam and Lorenzo Valla produced works criticizing the corruption, ignorance, and hypocrisy of the clergy. They lamented the Church’s transformation into a secular power and called for religious reform. The Modern Devotion movement, initiated in the Netherlands by the Brothers of the Common Life, argued for a closer relationship between clergy and laity and a more practical application of Christian principles in daily life. This movement gained widespread support, particularly after the publication of “The Imitation of Christ” by Thomas à Kempis. Girolamo Savonarola also criticized the clergy’s departure from Christian purity and the actions of Pope Alexander VI. Many of these critics, including Jan Hus and Savonarola, paid for their outspokenness with their lives.
The Protestant Reformation
The Indulgence Controversy
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Vatican sought to build a new St. Peter’s Basilica. To raise funds, the Church offered indulgences, promising forgiveness of sins to those who contributed. This practice, known as the “sale of indulgences,” sparked outrage. Martin Luther, a German monk, condemned indulgences as exploitation and wrote the Ninety-five Theses, criticizing the practice and papal authority. He posted these theses on the door of Wittenberg Cathedral.
Luther’s Excommunication and the Spread of Lutheranism
Luther was subsequently excommunicated and declared a heretic. He then dedicated himself to criticizing Church dogma, translating the Bible into German, and outlining his theological ideas in several works, effectively establishing a new doctrine known as Lutheranism. This doctrine gained popularity and found support among the German nobility, who provided Luther with protection and shelter. Lutheranism sparked a broader movement opposing papal authority and advocating for the renewal of Catholic doctrine, a movement the Vatican labeled the Protestant Reformation. This led to the emergence of new Protestant churches, dividing Christianity into two main branches: Catholicism, loyal to the Vatican, and Protestantism, which rejected papal authority.
Objectives of the Catholic Reformers
Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism
Lutheranism, in response to the problems undermining the Catholic Church, established new principles aimed at restoring the original purity of Christianity. Calvinism, developed by John Calvin, accepted the legitimacy of profit and emphasized work and savings as essential aspects of human development. Anglicanism, established in England under Henry VIII, placed the English monarch as the supreme head of the Church of England.
The Council of Trent and the Counter-Reformation
Response to Protestantism
The Counter-Reformation emerged as the Catholic Church’s response to the expansion of Protestantism. It involved a series of measures to confront Protestantism, control the faithful, persecute reformers, and discourage those considering joining the Protestant movement. The spread of Protestantism made it imperative to reform the Catholic Church, and this reform was initiated by Pope Paul III with the convening of the Council of Trent.
Key Decisions of the Council of Trent
The Council of Trent made several key decisions, including:
- Condemnation of Protestant doctrines
- Affirmation of free will, divine grace for salvation, and good works as a means of obtaining it
- Confirmation of the seven sacraments, the sacrifice of the Mass, its rites, and the existence of Purgatory
- Reaffirmation of the value of indulgences, the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the saints
- Definition of Holy Scripture and Church tradition as sources of faith
- Establishment of a Catholic version of the Bible based on St. Jerome’s translation
- Publication of a catechism to standardize religious teaching
- Reaffirmation of papal supremacy over councils
Differences Between Protestant Churches
Lutheranism
Lutheranism was the first of the Reformed churches, originating from the doctrinal debates and reforms initiated by Martin Luther and his followers. Its major tenets included salvation by faith, personal interpretation of Scripture, the universal priesthood, rejection of papal primacy, and the reduction of sacraments to baptism and the Eucharist. Luther’s “Treatise on Christian Liberty” argued that salvation is attained solely through faith, not works. In his “Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,” he challenged the clergy’s immunity from civil laws and denied the Pope’s exclusive authority to interpret Scripture. In “The Babylonian Captivity of the Church,” Luther reduced the seven sacraments to three (baptism, marriage, and the Eucharist) and later to just two (baptism and the Eucharist).
Calvinism
Calvinism, based on the teachings of John Calvin, was influenced by Lutheranism but presented its doctrines in a more logical and austere manner. Calvinists viewed God as an absolute ruler and the foundation of all things, emphasizing His majesty and demanding reverence. The doctrine of absolute predestination was a distinctive feature of Calvinism, asserting that God predetermined some for eternal life and others for eternal damnation. Those with faith could be assured of their salvation, as grace, once received, was final. This doctrine also implied the denial of free will. The Calvinist church had no hierarchy among believers and recognized only Christ as mediator, leading to the removal of images of the Virgin Mary and saints from churches and the rejection of their veneration. Unlike Luther, who believed the Church should be subject to the State, Calvin argued that the State should be subservient to the Church.
Anglicanism
Anglicanism emerged with the ascension of Queen Elizabeth I to the English throne. The Thirty-nine Articles defined Anglicanism as a compromise between Catholicism (in its structure) and Calvinism (in its content). It maintained ties to the State but leaned closer to Lutheranism in its approach. This ambiguity in the English Reformation led to dissatisfaction among some reformers who sought to “purify” the Anglican Church, which they perceived as being infiltrated by “papists.”
The Index, the Inquisition, and the Society of Jesus
Objectives of the Counter-Reformation
The Index of Prohibited Books was a list of books forbidden to Christians, created to support the objectives of the Council of Trent. The Inquisition, or Holy Office, aimed to combat Protestant heresy and also prosecuted cases of schism, apostasy, magic, witchcraft, polygamy, and other practices deemed contrary to Catholic morality. It also pursued New Christians accused of practicing Judaism in secret. The Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola and approved by Pope Paul III, was the leading religious order of the Catholic Reformation. Loyola sought to keep the Society independent from episcopal authority, allowing its members to dedicate themselves fully to spreading the faith through preaching and teaching.
Cultural Exchanges Between Asia, Europe, and the Americas
Africa
Europeans encountered black African civilizations organized into tribes, often semi-nomadic and perceived as “barbarian.” Europeans felt a need to “civilize” and Christianize these populations. European presence in Africa was limited, so the most significant cultural impact occurred through the slave trade, which began in the 15th century.
Asia
European interaction with Asia began in the Middle Ages. Europeans found densely populated lands with diverse ethnicities and cultures that were resistant to foreign influence, which they considered “barbaric.” Consequently, the penetration of Western values in the East was minimal, and missionary work proved extremely challenging. The West benefited from trade with Asia, gaining access to valuable goods that influenced the European economy. Additionally, Europe adopted some Asian technological inventions and knowledge in science, medicine, philosophy, and the arts.
Americas
In the Americas, Europeans encountered a large and diverse population resembling late Neolithic Europe. The Portuguese and Spanish, feeling superior, initiated a process of Europeanization, often implemented through violent means.
Evangelism, Enslavement, and Early Human Rights
During this period, some people were considered by Europeans to be closer to animals than humans. The expansion of trade and colonization involved the evangelization of indigenous populations and, frequently, their enslavement. Later, Jesuits began advocating for the human rights of indigenous peoples, whom they viewed as “wild” but good and gentle creatures who should not be enslaved.