The Regeneration Crisis in Spain (1902-1923)
The Political Regeneration (1902-1912)
Conservative and Liberal Reform Attempts
Since the beginning of Alfonso XIII’s reign, politicians sought to implement the regeneration principles of Joaquín Costa. Conservative Antonio Maura and Liberal José Canalejas attempted reforms from within the system, but political attrition led to their failure.
In 1906, the Restoration system experienced its first major crisis, revealing the tension between civil and military power. One of the regime’s concerns was to limit the military’s role in politics.
Maura’s Reform Efforts
Maura’s government initiated a conservative reform project, seeking social support from the “neutral masses” to establish a strong state. His goals included revitalizing local governments and reforming electoral laws.
The Law on Local Administration Reform aimed to dismantle the caciquismo system (political bossism), but it was never implemented. However, the “Electoral Law” and “Municipal Reform Bill” did make electoral fraud more difficult.
Maura also promoted social policies to improve working conditions and implemented interventionist economic measures.
Maura’s Downfall and the Tragic Week
Following the Disaster of ’98 and the loss of Spain’s last colonial territories, the country turned its attention to North Africa. Intervention in Morocco led to the “Tragic Week” revolt in Barcelona in 1909. A strike committee formed and called for a general strike on February 26th. Public anger against the Church fueled the revolt, which was met with harsh government repression, resulting in injuries and deaths.
The subsequent crackdown and formation of a leftist opposition bloc forced Maura’s resignation. The alliance of liberal parties, known as the “dynastic no,” broke the political pact and led Alfonso XIII to dissolve Parliament and transfer power to the Liberals.
Canalejas and Liberal Reformism
José Canalejas formed a liberal government in 1910, aiming to implement a regeneration program with working-class support. One of his key actions was the “Padlock Act,” which sought to limit the Church’s power. Canalejas’s efforts ultimately failed, and he was assassinated in 1912.
The Birth of Nationalism
During the Restoration, several regions sought to assert their unique languages and histories, evolving from “regionalist” to “nationalist” movements. These movements found support among the regional bourgeoisie, who desired greater control over their own affairs.
Catalan Nationalism
Catalan nationalism emerged in the first half of the 19th century. During the Restoration, it gained political momentum under the influence of Valentí Almirall. In 1887, Catalan conservatives formed their own party, advocating for broad autonomy while maintaining loyalty to the monarchy. They sought greater representation in the Cortes and control over Catalan public offices.
Basque Nationalism
Basque nationalism originated from the desire to restore lost privileges. Sabino Arana’s theories emphasized race, traditional morality, Catholicism, anti-Spanish sentiment, and independence. He founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), which openly declared its anti-Spanish stance.
The Crisis of 1917
After Canalejas’s death, the dynastic parties weakened, and politicians became more beholden to the king than the electorate.
Neutrality during World War I
Spain’s neutrality in World War I initially boosted the economy as warring nations demanded goods. However, this opportunity was mismanaged, leading to food shortages and social unrest within Spain.
Military Uprising
Dissatisfied with their treatment, Spanish military officers demanded seniority-based promotions, pay raises, and greater respect. The government eventually conceded, passing the Army Act of 1918.
Political and Social Upheaval
Amidst political instability, Prime Minister Dato closed the Cortes in February 1917. The Parliamentary Assembly, comprised mainly of Catalans, called for a Constituent Cortes. Dato refused, and after two meetings with the king, Catalan parliamentarians joined the central government.
Economic hardship due to wartime neutrality fueled social tensions and radicalized unions. A general strike, supported by the UGT, CNT, PSOE, and some Republicans, erupted. Clashes between strikers and the army resulted in casualties. The army’s collaboration with the government in suppressing the strike saved the monarchy and reinforced its role in maintaining the system. The Catalan bourgeoisie, alarmed by the radical labor movement, reversed its stance.
The Moroccan Problem
The Spanish occupation of Morocco proved costly and ineffective. Local resistance continued, culminating in the disastrous retreat to Melilla, where Spanish forces suffered 12,000 casualties, as documented in the Picasso Report.
Seeking stability, the ruling oligarchy and the king turned to the army. On the night of September 12-13, 1923, Captain General Miguel Primo de Rivera launched a coup in Barcelona, declaring a state of war and suspending the 1876 Constitution. The king endorsed the coup, and Primo de Rivera became head of a military directorate, ruling Spain for the next seven years.