The Reign of Alfonso XIII: Modernization and Crisis

Posted on Dec 7, 2024 in History

Item 14.1 (first part) Overview of the Reign of Alfonso XIII: Modernization Attempts, The Regeneration, Crisis, and Collapse of the Restoration System, and the War in Morocco. There are three stages in the reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931). In the first phase (1902-1923), the shift system will continue, but with more difficulties in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Historiography still considers this period as part of the Restoration. The second period (1923-1930) is marked by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. The last period, covering from the resignation of General until the proclamation of the Second Republic in April 1931, represents a moment of crisis and decay of the regime. This topic will address the first period of the reign. Its features are:

• The shift parties suffer from internal crises that hinder the stability of the system.
• Liberals and conservatives continue to alternate in power, but governments are very short-lived.
• Labor unrest increases due to inflation, greater awareness of their precarious situation by the workers, and an increase in union membership.
• Rise of anarchism and republicanism. The anarchists were split into two trends: a more violent faction and a less extreme one.
• Lerroux’s radical Republicans had extensive popular support among factory workers and the urban middle classes, and their rhetoric was revolutionary and violent.
• Increase of nationalist claims, with Francesc Macià representing Catalan nationalism, which is both separatist and revolutionary.
• Military failures, particularly in Morocco.
• Greater involvement of people in politics and increased criticism of despotism and electoral manipulation.
• Major role of the King in politics.
• Spain remained neutral during the First World War.
• The Constitution of 1876 remained in force until 1923.

The period begins with the memory of the loss of overseas colonies. The Regenerationism will lead to criticism of the Restoration, but it is in danger of disappearing. Political corruption, despotism, and economic backwardness were criticized as causes of the decline experienced in Spain. Many intellectuals (Unamuno, Baroja, Maeztu, etc.) published writings in the press about the situation. The key figure of regeneration was Joaquín Costa. His program included the need to improve the educational system, clean up public debt, build public works, end despotism, and modernize the country in all aspects of the Regenerationists. Some politicians, aware of the critical situation in Spain, proposed reform efforts from within the system without changing the fundamental principles of the Restoration. Their objectives were, firstly, to control the anarchists and Republicans, and secondly, to start a slow transition to genuine democracy.

• Francisco Silvela, from the Conservative Party, chaired the government between 1902 and 1903. He coined the idea of revolution from the top to prevent revolution from below. His proposals aimed to end corruption, electoral fraud, and promote greater citizen participation in politics.
• Antonio Maura, also from the Conservative Party, served as president several times during the reign of Alfonso XIII. He supported greater citizen involvement in politics, ending the electoral farce, modernizing the economy, and initiating decentralization. A fundamental point of his agenda was to limit the king’s intervention in politics.
• He also aimed to bring Catalan nationalists into the system. His political action emphasized the electoral reform law, making voting mandatory. He argued that if the number of candidates in a vote was no greater than the positions to fill, those candidates would be appointed directly, without an election. He also adopted some labor laws, including the creation of the National Insurance Institute, the recognition of the right to strike, and the abolition of the dominical law. However, the results of his measures can be considered a failure: they did not end the chieftaincy, and the laws caused rejection from both conservatives (who found them excessive) and anarchists and socialists (who felt they were timid).
• During his rule in 1909, a revolt broke out in Barcelona known as the Tragic Week. The immediate cause of the protests was the forced recruitment of troops for the war in Morocco. The main instigators were anarchists, Lerroux’s radical Republicans, and socialists. It was a violent uprising strongly anticlerical. Once crushed, there was a strong repression, with the teacher Ferrer i Guardia being executed unjustly. The uprising led to the fall of Maura.
• José Canalejas, from the Liberal Party, was president between 1910 and 1912. His regeneration project focused on promoting education, ending the influence of the Church in politics, establishing conscription (without the possibility of paying a sum of money to avoid it), and increasing Alfonso XIII’s intervention in politics. He was assassinated by an anarchist in the Puerta del Sol in Madrid.
• Eduardo Dato, from the Conservative Party, proposed drafting a workers’ compensation law (which mandated that employers must pay compensation in the event of an accident at work), an eight-hour workday, and a pension system. However, his policy did not include a project to end despotism. He was also killed by an anarchist.

The crisis of 1917 was a severe challenge to the regime. There were three events that encompassed this crisis:

• The creation of military defense groups protesting the promotion system and low wages.
• The formation of a parliamentary assembly composed of Catalan nationalists, socialists, and Republicans, independent of the legal Parliament, demanding true democracy and autonomy for Catalonia.
• A general strike promoted by CNT and UGT, which caused a halt in production and numerous civilian casualties. This failed due to a lack of support among peasants, police repression, and differing objectives between the CNT and UGT.

After the Algeciras Conference (1906), the Spanish presence in Morocco was limited to the northern region, which was the poorest and most mountainous. For this reason, Spain found it difficult to control its territory. Riff attacks on Spanish railway workers resulted in Spanish defeats at Gurugú and Barranco del Lobo. To tackle these attacks, the Legion was formed, consisting of Spanish volunteers and Moroccan mercenaries. However, the Disaster of Annual (1921) marked the biggest defeat for Spain in Morocco. The Rif, led by Abd el Krim, defeated the Spanish, controlling part of the colonial territory and inflicting numerous casualties. This disaster was attributed to the ineptitude of military commanders (General Silvestre and Berenguer). For Spain, this defeat was a new frustration, and those responsible were prosecuted. The Disaster of Annual was one of the reasons cited by Miguel Primo de Rivera for his coup in September 1923.