The Reign of Alfonso XIII of Spain
The Reign of Alfonso XIII
Early Reign and Political Context
In 1902, Alfonso XIII began his reign in Spain, inheriting a nation eager for regeneration after the colonial disaster of 1898. This period marked a generational shift in Spanish politics. In 1906, he married Victoria Eugenia of Battenberg, granddaughter of Queen Victoria of England. They had six children. His reign, however, was plagued by political crises, war in Morocco, and social unrest, ultimately leading to the coup and dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in 1923. The April 1931 elections resulted in a Republican victory, forcing the king into exile for ten years. He died in Rome in 1941 and was initially buried there. In 1980, his remains were transferred to the Pantheon of the Kings at El Escorial Monastery, where they rest today.
The Disaster of 1898 and the Political System
The colonial disaster of 1898, along with the deaths of prominent politicians Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, tested the Restoration’s political system. However, the two major parties continued their alternation in power. New leaders like Antonio Maura and José Canalejas emerged, attempting to regenerate and modernize Spain while upholding the system’s core principles.
Antonio Maura and the Conservative Party
Antonio Maura, leader of the Conservative Party, served as Prime Minister several times. He aimed to reform the army and administration through a “revolution from above” to eliminate political patronage and corruption. However, he faced resistance from established interests, the Liberals, the left-wing, and even King Alfonso XIII himself.
José Canalejas and the Liberal Party
José Canalejas briefly unified the divided Liberal Party. During his government, he abolished the unpopular consumption tax, introduced compulsory military service, and implemented the “Law of the Padlock” to restrict the establishment of new religious orders.
Political Fragmentation
Following Canalejas’ assassination in 1912 and Maura’s retirement from politics, the major parties of the Restoration fractured into various factions.
Political and Social Conflicts
Alfonso XIII’s reign faced several deep-rooted challenges:
Nationalism
The centralized Spanish state faced growing regionalist and nationalist movements in the periphery. These movements demanded cultural recognition and political autonomy. The Regionalist League in Catalonia and the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) were prominent examples. Less influential movements emerged in Galicia (Irmandades of Fala) and Andalusia (Andalucismo).
The Religious Issue
While the Constitution established a Catholic confessional state, some liberal politicians, intellectuals, and workers sought to limit the Church’s influence in society and politics. In 1910, the Catholic clergy numbered 65,000 members.
The Labor Movement and Social Issues
Poor living conditions fueled protests by workers and peasants organized into anarchist and socialist groups. Anarcho-syndicalism spread in Andalusia and Catalonia, represented by the National Confederation of Labour (CNT) and its newspaper Solidaridad Obrera. More radical groups resorted to terrorism. Socialism, led by Pablo Iglesias, gained ground in Madrid, Bilbao, and Asturias.
The War in Morocco
The war in Morocco drained Spain’s resources and manpower. The army suffered major defeats at Barranco del Lobo (1909) and Annual (1921), leading to public disapproval of the military and the king, who supported these disastrous decisions.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
The political crisis and the aftermath of the Annual disaster led to a military coup by General Miguel Primo de Rivera on September 13, 1923. This marked the beginning of a personal dictatorship that retained the monarchy but disregarded the Constitution and political parties.
Phases of the Dictatorship
The dictatorship had two phases:
- A military directory: This phase addressed the Moroccan conflict, maintained public order, and reformed the administration.
- A civilian directory: This phase focused on improving the economy through investments and infrastructure renewal.
Decline and Fall
Despite some initial successes, the dictatorship failed to resolve underlying problems and lost political support. Primo de Rivera resigned and was replaced by General Dámaso Berenguer. Republicans united against the monarchy in the Pact of San Sebastián (August 1930).
The End of the Monarchy
Berenguer’s government called for municipal elections on April 12, 1931. The pro-Republican results prompted Alfonso XIII to leave Spain, effectively ending his reign and ushering in the Second Spanish Republic.