The Reign of Alfonso XIII: Political Instability and the Rise of Dictatorship in Spain
The Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931)
The Parliamentary Stage (1909-1923)
The reign of Alfonso XIII can be divided into two distinct stages: the parliamentary period (1909-1923) and the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930). A year after the dictatorship, the king abdicated and went into exile, leading to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.
The parliamentary stage was marked by persistent instability stemming from unresolved issues of the Restoration era. Alfonso XIII assumed the role of Head of State under the 1876 Restoration Constitution following Spain’s defeat in the Spanish-American War. This defeat spurred a desire for renewal and modernization known as Regenerationism.
The Restoration system relied heavily on caciquismo, a system of political patronage and control. This practice was criticized by intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset, Miguel de Unamuno, and Antonio Machado, who also advocated for the regeneration of Spain. Two prominent figures who championed regenerationism and became Prime Ministers were Antonio Maura (Conservative Party) and José Canalejas (Liberal Party).
The Conservative Party and Antonio Maura
Antonio Maura, leader of the Conservative Party, aimed to dismantle caciquismo, decentralize power, and stimulate the economy. However, his tenure was marred by the Tragic Week of 1909, a popular uprising in Barcelona protesting the deployment of reserve troops to the Rif War in Morocco. The uprising, fueled by socialist and anarchist factions, escalated into violence and the burning of churches and convents. The aftermath saw numerous deaths, including the execution of anarchist Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia, and ultimately led to Maura’s resignation.
The Liberal Party and José Canalejas
Following the death of Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the Liberal Party was revitalized under José Canalejas. He implemented a reform program aligned with regenerationist ideals, including the separation of church and state, promotion of education, the introduction of mandatory military service for all males, and the establishment of the Mancomunitat de Catalunya, a commonwealth of Catalan provinces.
The Crisis of 1917
The year 1917 witnessed a convergence of crises that exposed deep-seated problems within Spanish society:
- Military Crisis: The establishment of the Juntas de Defensa (military committees) demanding better pay and conditions led to the enactment of the Law of Military Jurisdictions.
- Political Crisis: The creation of the Parliamentary Assembly of Catalonia, spearheaded by Francesc Cambó, called for profound constitutional reform to democratize the political system.
- Social Crisis: The impact of World War I caused food shortages and hardship, particularly for the working class. This discontent culminated in a general strike organized by the UGT, CNT, and PSOE.
The government’s response to these crises involved the formation of coalition governments, known as gobiernos de concentración.
The Moroccan Question
Spain’s colonial policy in Morocco was a source of contention. Anti-colonialists advocated for prioritizing domestic issues, while Africanists sought to restore Spain’s international prestige through colonial expansion. The Moroccan question was further complicated by French ambitions in North Africa and their desire to control the Strait of Gibraltar. Following a series of incidents involving Moroccan nationalist groups, the Spanish army suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Annual in 1921. This defeat intensified opposition to the war, which was perceived as serving only the interests of a few businesses. In 1925, the Alhucemas landing reasserted Spanish control over the Moroccan protectorate, which lasted until 1956. Spain relinquished control of the Western Sahara in 1975.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Amidst the backdrop of an ineffective parliamentary monarchy, General Miguel Primo de Rivera seized power in a coup d’état in 1923. King Alfonso XIII appointed him Prime Minister. The dictatorship was welcomed by the bourgeoisie, nobility, and clergy. The working class reacted with division: while the Socialists initially accepted the regime, the anarchists and the Communist Party opposed it and became its primary victims.
Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship unfolded in two phases:
- The Military Directorate (1923-1925): This phase was characterized by the suspension of the 1876 Constitution, the dissolution of parliament, the abolition of political parties and trade unions, and the imposition of control over municipalities and provincial councils. Primo de Rivera established a new political group called the Patriotic Union. The most significant achievement of this period was the pacification of Morocco following the Alhucemas landing.
- The Civil Directorate (1925-1930): This phase saw the inclusion of right-wing politicians in the government. Spain experienced a period of economic prosperity, coinciding with a broader European boom, and relative social peace. However, opposition to the dictatorship grew.
In 1930, the Pact of San Sebastián was signed by regionalist, constitutionalist, socialist, and republican factions. Their objective was to overthrow the monarchy. Following the king’s departure from the country, the Republicans seized power, ushering in the Second Spanish Republic.