The Reign of Charles IV and the Spanish War of Independence
1. The Crisis of the Reign of Charles IV
1.1 The Monarchy of Charles IV
Charles IV’s monarchy distanced itself from government ministers, entrusting power to Manuel Godoy. Following the example of French monarch Louis XVI, Charles IV declared war on France, resulting in Spain’s defeat. Spanish politics hesitated before the rise of Napoleon, fearing his power and attempting to appease France to avoid confrontation with Napoleon’s army. The Franco-Spanish navy was destroyed, and Charles IV lost his fleet.
Given the crisis, Godoy resorted to borrowing and increased taxes to bolster state resources. However, this only provoked widespread opposition, particularly from the peasantry, causing popular discontent and fueling riots.
1.2 The Mutiny of Aranjuez
In 1807, Godoy and Napoleon signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, targeting Portugal, an ally of Great Britain. On March 18, the Mutiny of Aranjuez erupted, leading to the deposition of Godoy and the abdication of Charles IV in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. However, Charles IV sought Napoleon’s help to regain the throne, prompting Napoleon to invade Spain. Both Charles and Ferdinand were summoned to Bayonne, where Napoleon forced them to abdicate. Napoleon then installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain. Joseph’s reforms aimed to dismantle the Ancien Régime, which the Spanish people resisted.
2. The War of Independence
2.1 Popular Revolt and the Formation of Juntas
On May 2, 1808, crowds gathered at the Royal Palace in Madrid to prevent the departure of the Spanish royal family. The revolt was suppressed by General Murat. Following the Bayonne abdication, the Spanish population rose against the French invasion. Local supporters of Ferdinand VII formed the first juntas, followed by provincial juntas, which declared war on Napoleon. In September, representatives were sent to Aranjuez to establish the Supreme Central Junta to lead the war effort and govern the country.
2.2 The Resistance: Sieges and Guerrillas
Spanish victories at Bruc and Bailén prevented the French from conquering Andalusia and forced Joseph Bonaparte to abandon Madrid. Napoleon launched a counteroffensive in November, achieving unstoppable progress after four weeks. During 1809, French rule extended throughout most of Spain. Guerrilla resistance, carried out by small local groups of 30 to 50 members, grew to encompass around 55,000 men. In 1812, aided by the British army under General Wellington, the Spanish achieved victory at the Battle of Salamanca. This forced Joseph Bonaparte to abandon Madrid again and led Napoleon to negotiate an end to the conflict with Spain, allowing the return of Ferdinand VII (Treaty of Valençay).
2.3 Social, Political, and Ideological Attitudes
A minority of pro-French Spaniards collaborated with Joseph Bonaparte but were forced into exile at the end of the war due to persecution initiated by Ferdinand VII. The rest of the population formed the Patriotic Front, opposing the invasion. Most of the clergy and nobility desired a return to absolutism under Ferdinand VII. Some advocated for reforms and modernization within the framework of the Ancien Régime. Liberals saw the war as an opportunity to establish a new liberal political system.
3. The Cortes of Cadiz and the Constitution of 1812
3.1 The Convocation of the Cortes
In 1810, the Supreme Central Junta, deemed incapable of effectively managing the war, was dissolved. The Cortes of Cadiz were convened in September of that year, where the liberal faction gained prominence. They approved the principle of national sovereignty, recognizing that power resides in all citizens, represented in the Cortes.
3.2 The Constitution of 1812
The Constitution of 1812 was promulgated on March 19, 1812, Saint Joseph’s Day, earning it the nickname “La Pepa.” This extensive text, comprising 384 articles, enshrined a declaration of citizen rights, including freedom of thought and opinion, the right to petition, and equality before the law for all Spaniards. It established a constitutional monarchy based on the separation of powers, rejecting the divine right of kings. The legislature held broad powers, including lawmaking, budget approval, and control of the army. It established universal male suffrage (indirect). The monarch served as head of the executive branch. Justice was the exclusive domain of the courts, and the constitution established the basic principles of the rule of law. The territory was divided into provinces, and a National Militia was created.
3.3 The Legislative Action of the Cortes
The Cortes of Cadiz enacted several decrees and laws aimed at dismantling the Ancien Régime and establishing a liberal state. They abolished the Inquisition, established freedom of the press and labor, dissolved guilds, and unified the national market, laying the groundwork for modernization in Spain. However, upon the war’s conclusion, the return of Ferdinand VII ended the liberal experiment and led to the restoration of absolutism.