The Reign of Elizabeth II: Moderate and Progressive Eras
The Reign of Elizabeth II
Early Years and Moderate Decade
Elizabeth II’s reign began when she was just 13 years old. This long period laid the groundwork for a liberal state, establishing political, administrative, and judicial institutions, and consolidating the legal foundations from the previous era. Her reign was marked by:
- The army’s involvement in political life
- The Queen’s active intervention
- The exclusion of the populace from political participation
General Narváez’s primary goal during the Moderate Decade was to create a liberal regime tailored to the interests of the crown, nobility, gentry, and Church. This aimed to end the revolutionary era and curb the social and political expectations of the popular sectors. The 1845 Constitution established a conservative monarchy based on shared sovereignty between the courts and the crown. It reinforced the King’s powers, restricted citizens’ rights and freedoms, and recognized Catholicism as the state religion.
The Moderates introduced new legal codes, the metric system, and organized the civil service and military recruitment. They respected Basque and Navarrese traditions to appease Carlist sentiment, abolished internal customs duties, and created a national market. However, they also restricted rights of expression, assembly, and demonstration, abolished local boards and the national militia, and created the Civil Guard to suppress rural banditry. The Concordat with the Holy See restored relations with the Church, with the state agreeing to support the clergy and Catholicism in exchange for certain rights for the Church.
These policies led to significant popular unrest and socio-political instability.
The Progressive Biennium
This period began with the Vicalvaro military uprising in June 1854, led by Moderates O’Donnell and Dulce against the Sartorius government. The Manifesto of Manzanares, drafted by Cánovas del Castillo, gained popular support by demanding lower taxes, expanded suffrage, and greater citizen rights. Isabel II was forced to appoint Espartero, a progressive icon, as prime minister.
The Liberal Union party, formed to unite progressives and moderates, restored freedom of the press, local councils, and the national militia. The Moyano Law promoted education. While a new constitution was planned, it was never proclaimed. Espartero’s policies encouraged economic activity, including mining and railway development. The Civil Confiscation Act benefited state finances and wealthy landowners but harmed farmers and laborers. Popular protests ultimately ended the biennium.
Moderate Governments and the Liberal Union
O’Donnell replaced Espartero and continued the liberal economic policies. Economic growth boosted state finances, enabling public works projects like the Canal de Isabel II and improved infrastructure. O’Donnell’s ambitious foreign policy, including the African War, resulted in territorial gains but also significant casualties.
The Final Crisis and the Glorious Revolution
From 1863, unstable and authoritarian Moderate and Unionist governments led by O’Donnell and Narváez faced growing discontent due to economic hardship and pro-Carlist sentiment. Key events further fueled opposition. The 1866 Pact of Ostend saw progressives, republicans, and democrats unite to oust Isabel II and establish universal male suffrage. Following Narváez’s death, O’Donnell lost support, and Unionists joined the opposition, culminating in the September Revolution. This military uprising, with widespread popular support, became the Glorious Revolution, ushering in the Democratic Sexenio.