The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833): Absolutism vs. Liberalism
The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)
4. The Old Regime Crisis
The Old Regime crisis began with disputes during the reign of Charles IV, including the Mutiny of Aranjuez and the uprising of May 2, 1808. This led to a confrontation between absolutism and liberalism, with increasingly radical political positions. The struggle continued throughout Ferdinand VII’s reign, highlighting the power of the Old Regime’s privileged class and the weakness of liberal forces. By the end of this period, it became clear that the Old Regime was ending, and the ruling classes would restructure the state.
A) The Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)
In 1813, with Napoleon’s defeat, Ferdinand VII was about to return to Spain. The Treaty of Valençay restored him to the throne, and he promised to rehabilitate Francophiles. In March 1814, Ferdinand returned. The regency and the courts intended to have him swear an oath to the Constitution, fearing his return to absolutism. However, during his journey, Ferdinand witnessed Spain’s political divisions. General Elio, near Valencia, pronounced support for the king’s return to absolutism. In Valencia, a group of deputies (around one hundred) presented the Manifesto of the Persians, requesting the restoration of absolute power and the repeal of liberal legislation. Popular enthusiasm for the king’s return and Napoleon’s defeat in Europe further favored absolutism. Unsurprisingly, Ferdinand proclaimed the Decree of May 4 in Valencia, nullifying the Constitution and all laws of Cadiz. Key liberal leaders in Madrid were arrested or killed. In the following days, all pre-1808 legislation was restored, including the feudal regime and the Inquisition. This absolutist coup reunited the traditional powers: monarchy, aristocracy, and church. Liberals went underground, resorting to insurrections, relying on liberal army sectors that emerged from the war against Napoleon. Until 1820, most of these attempts failed (Lacy, Porlier, Vidal…). The six-year government was ineffective due to constant ministerial changes, liberal actions, and the impossibility of sustaining the political system. The country was in chaos: destroyed infrastructure, a diminished fleet, demographic disaster, and catastrophic finances. Traditional problems, exacerbated by the war, had no solution unless the Old Regime’s tax structures changed. American colonies were in rebellion, paralyzing commerce. Either the reforms advocated by liberalism (abolishing the seigneurial system, tax reform, free enterprise) were implemented, or economic improvement was impossible. These reforms were opposed by those who supported the absolutist coup of May 1814. Isolated, bankrupt, and powerless, with a disorganized and poorly paid army, the absolutist regime wouldn’t withstand the general uprising of 1820.
B) The Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)
On January 1, 1820, Rafael del Riego proclaimed the Constitution of Cadiz in Cabezas de San Juan and restored constitutional municipal authorities. The movement spread through Andalusia, gaining support in some cities. The army tasked with fighting Riego also proclaimed the Constitution, forcing Ferdinand VII to swear to it: “Let us march frankly, and I am the first, along the constitutional path.” This had a major impact outside Spain, particularly in Portugal, Piedmont, and Naples.
In Spain:
- An Interim Governing Board, recognized by similar boards across the country, called for open elections and the convening of Parliament in June. An amnesty allowed the return of liberal and Francophile figures.
- Freedom of assembly and association was decreed, leading to the formation of patriotic societies. Freedom of expression resulted in the emergence of 700 newspapers.
- A national militia, a citizen volunteer armed force, was created.
Between 1820 and 1823, the government attempted to implement the work and spirit of Cadiz: abolishing feudal courts, suppressing the Inquisition, territorial and administrative reorganization, unifying codes and laws, establishing freedom of commerce, industry, and property, controlling ecclesiastical privileges, reforming monastic orders, and reducing tithes. This was no easy task. The nobility, the church, and the privileged resisted and boycotted reforms. The king, using his veto power, restrained the enactment of laws. Given these difficulties, the Liberals split, forming the early embryos of political parties:
- Moderates or Doceanistas (Argüelles, Martinez de la Rosa, Toreno): Supporters of limited reforms, they collaborated with the king and sought compromise with the Old Regime. They accused their opponents of republicanism and social disruption.
- Exaltados: Those who made the revolution, young officers, the National Militia, and urban sectors. Gaining power in 1822 due to royalist conspiracies, they accelerated reforms consistent with capitalist development, benefiting the wealthy rural class and the propertied bourgeoisie. They assumed this would create conditions for labor market expansion for farmers displaced by land reform. However, these reforms didn’t connect with peasant aspirations for land access.