The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)
The Absolutist Sexenio (1814-1820)
Following Napoleon’s defeat and the Treaty of Valençay, Fernando VII returned to Spain. Instead of accepting the liberal Constitution of 1812, he issued the Manifesto of the Persians, backed by the clergy and nobility, and reinstated absolutism. This period saw harsh repression against liberals and reformers. The Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance further solidified absolutist power in Europe.
The War of Independence had devastated Spain’s economy. The loss of colonies, coupled with the opposition of privileged classes to taxation, crippled the treasury. This led to widespread unrest among the commercial bourgeoisie, peasantry, and even within the army. Several unsuccessful liberal uprisings, or “pronouncements,” took place during this period.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, General Riego’s successful coup forced Fernando VII to accept the 1812 Constitution and call for parliamentary elections. The Liberal Triennium saw the restoration of the Constitution and the national militia. However, Fernando VII used his suspensive veto to obstruct reforms and conspired with the Holy Alliance against his own government.
The Triennium ultimately failed due to ineffective measures, peasant discontent, opposition from the privileged classes, and internal divisions among liberals. Moderates favored mild reforms, while the Exalted advocated for radical changes benefiting the lower classes.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
The Holy Alliance, through French intervention, ended the Liberal Triennium in 1823. The “Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis” restored absolutism, leading to the repression and exile of liberals. Fernando VII restored pre-war institutions, excluding the Inquisition. The loss of colonies forced him to seek support from the commercial bourgeoisie, alienating the ultra-royalists.
In 1827, ultra-royalists shifted their support to Fernando VII’s brother, Carlos María Isidro, the heir presumptive. Fernando VII’s childless marriage ended with his wife’s death. He remarried Maria Cristina de Borbón, who became pregnant in 1830. Fernando VII then abolished the Salic Law, recognizing his future daughter, Isabella, as heir. During a serious illness in 1832, he was tricked into signing a decree reinstating the Salic Law, but later reversed it upon recovery. Carlos María Isidro fled to Portugal.
Upon Fernando VII’s death in 1833, Maria Cristina assumed regency and sought liberal support, offering amnesty to exiles and promising a liberal state. On the same day, Carlos María Isidro, backed by conservatives, launched the Carlist War.
The Loss of the American Colonies
The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a growing independence movement in the American colonies. Fueled by liberal ideas, Creole discontent, the example of U.S. independence, and British support, the movement gained momentum. Creoles, of Spanish descent but born in the Americas, held significant economic power but lacked political power under Spanish rule. They desired greater autonomy and commercial freedom, particularly to trade with the British.
The independence process began with the colonies rejecting Joseph Bonaparte’s authority and forming their own governing juntas. Spain, weakened by the Napoleonic Wars, struggled to maintain control. Independence movements emerged in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata (led by José de San Martín), the Viceroyalty of New Granada and Venezuela (led by Simón Bolívar), and Mexico (led by Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos).
Fernando VII’s attempts to regain control were largely unsuccessful, except in the Rio de la Plata. Several colonies achieved independence: Argentina (1816), Paraguay (1811), Venezuela (1815), Chile (1818), Colombia (1819), Mexico and Peru (1821), Ecuador (1822), and Bolivia (1825). The loss of the colonies had a devastating impact on Spain, reducing it to a second-rate power and hindering its industrial development.