The Reign of Philip II of Spain: Foreign Policy and Conflicts
The Foreign Policy of Philip II (1556-1598)
Conflict with France (1556-1559)
Between 1556 and 1559, Philip II waged war against Pope Paul IV and Henry II of France, driven by the desire to maintain Spanish hegemony in Italy. The Pope, allied with France, aimed to expel the Spanish. Military operations unfolded in Italy and along the French border. The papal army invaded Naples, while the Duke of Alba invaded the Papal States, reaching Rome’s gates. A peace treaty was signed, and the war concluded with the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559, reaffirming Spanish dominance in Italy. France relinquished its Italian ambitions, returned Savoy and Piedmont, but retained Metz, Toul, and Verdun.
Conflict with the Ottoman Empire (1570-1578)
In 1570, the Turks conquered Cyprus, a Venetian possession valuable for its salt, wine, and cotton production. Venice, seeking allies, formed the “Holy League” with Spain and the Papal States. A large fleet, with significant Spanish contribution, clashed with the Turkish forces at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. The Turks suffered a major defeat, but the “Holy League” soon dissolved due to differing member interests. A Hispano-Turkish truce was signed in 1578 and periodically renewed.
Revolt of the Netherlands (1568-1648)
The Netherlands, comprising seventeen economically advanced provinces, held strategic importance for Philip II. The revolt stemmed from religious, political, and economic factors. The spread of Calvinism, coupled with political grievances and economic hardship (poor harvests, rising grain prices, and trade issues), fueled unrest. Philip II sent the Duke of Alba to quell the rebellion. Alba’s harsh rule, including the establishment of the “Council of Troubles,” led to widespread repression. William of Orange, a key figure in the resistance, fled to Germany. The Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648) effectively began during this period.
Subsequent governors, including Luis de Requesens and John of Austria, failed to resolve the conflict. Alexander Farnese, a skilled military leader and diplomat, exploited the religious divide between the northern and southern provinces. The southern provinces, predominantly Catholic, formed the Union of Arras, recognizing Philip II’s sovereignty. The northern provinces, largely Calvinist, formed the Union of Utrecht, declaring independence, and eventually became the modern Netherlands. Philip II later ceded the Netherlands to his daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia, and her husband, Archduke Albert of Austria. However, Spain continued to provide military and financial support. The conflict continued until Spain formally recognized Dutch independence in the Treaty of Münster (1648).
Annexation of Portugal (1578-1640)
Following the death of King Sebastian of Portugal in 1578, Philip II, Sebastian’s uncle, pressed his claim to the Portuguese throne. Supported by the Portuguese nobility and commercial bourgeoisie, Philip II dispatched the Duke of Alba to secure control of Portugal. The Cortes of Tomar (1581) recognized Philip II as King of Portugal, uniting the Spanish and Portuguese crowns. Portugal retained its institutions and laws under Spanish rule. However, Portugal revolted in 1640, and its independence was officially recognized in 1668.
The Enterprise of England (1588)
Relations between Spain and England deteriorated due to several factors, including the presence of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, in England, English support for Dutch rebels, and seizures of ships by both sides. In 1587, Mary Stuart was executed, prompting Philip II to plan an invasion of England. The Spanish Armada, intended to transport troops from the Netherlands to England, met the English fleet in the English Channel in 1588. The invasion failed due to various factors, but Philip II’s international prestige remained largely undiminished.
Intervention in France (1589-1598)
Following the death of Henry III of France in 1589, Philip II intervened in the French Wars of Religion, attempting to prevent the accession of Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot. Philip II even nominated his daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia, as a candidate for the French throne. However, Henry of Navarre converted to Catholicism, becoming Henry IV of France. The war continued until the Peace of Vervins in 1598, shortly before Philip II’s death, in which Spain recognized Henry IV as the legitimate king of France.
The Spanish Peace
Philip III reigned from 1598 to 1621. He concluded the Peace of London with England in 1604 and the Twelve Years’ Truce with the Netherlands in 1609. Friendly relations were established with France through dynastic marriages. However, Spain became involved in the Thirty Years’ War (1618), which began with a revolt in Bohemia and eventually engulfed much of Europe. This conflict indirectly contributed to Spain’s decline and the gradual erosion of its hegemony.
The Annexation of Portugal
In 1578, King Sebastian of Portugal died in the Battle of Alcazarquivir. Philip II, Sebastian’s uncle, claimed the Portuguese throne and sent the Duke of Alba to secure control. The Cortes of Tomar (1581) recognized Philip II as King, uniting the Spanish and Portuguese crowns. Portugal retained its institutions under Spanish rule, but revolted in 1640 and regained independence in 1668.
The Enterprise of England (1588)
Anglo-Spanish relations deteriorated, leading to the Spanish Armada’s failed attempt to invade England in 1588. Despite the defeat, Spain’s naval power remained significant.