The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain
Union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon
The marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469, and their subsequent accession to their respective thrones in 1479, marked the beginning of the dynastic union of these realms. Isabel’s victory in the Castilian Civil War and Ferdinand’s inheritance of the Aragonese throne solidified their power. As cousins, their union created a powerful family dynasty ruling both Castile and Aragon. This union would last throughout Isabel’s lifetime. However, it’s important to note that Castile and Aragon remained separate kingdoms, each retaining its own courts and institutions (political autonomy). Castile held greater importance due to its larger size, population, and economic influence.
This union led to several significant developments, including:
- Religious unification of the peninsula
- The conquest of Granada and Navarre
- The expulsion of Jews and Muslims
- The discovery of America
- Strategic marriages of their children, expanding their territory and influence
- Establishment of the Spanish Inquisition to combat religious deviation
The Conquest of the Nazari Kingdom and the Kingdom of Navarre
The Reconquista culminated in 1492 with the fall of the Kingdom of Granada. The Nasrid Kingdom, named after the ruling Nasrid dynasty, had thrived on trade in African gold and silk exports since the 13th century. However, it was plagued by internal conflicts. The Catholic Monarchs capitalized on this, obtaining a papal bull for a crusade and utilizing superior artillery and tactics to exploit these divisions. The war unfolded in three stages:
- The War in the West (1487), culminating in the conquest of Malaga
- The War in the East (1489), leading to the conquest of Almeria
- The Fall of Granada (1492)
With the conclusion of the Reconquista, Al-Andalus vanished, and Muslims were expelled, leading to the complex issue of the Moriscos. Key events related to this include the Stipulations of Santa Fe (1492), forced conversions under Cardinal Cisneros (1499), and the decree that Muslims must convert or leave the kingdom (1502).
Ferdinand also waged war with France, resulting in the annexation of Navarre by Castile in 1515.
The Integration of the Canary Islands
The Catholic Monarchs initiated the conquest of the Canary Islands in 1402, completing it between 1483 and 1496 with the occupation of La Palma, Gran Canaria, and Tenerife. These islands were inhabited by the Guanches, a people with a Neolithic level of development. The initial conquests were carried out by individuals who signed contracts with the monarchs regarding the distribution of benefits. The final three islands were conquered through direct intervention by the Crown.
The conquest and colonization of the Canary Islands provided valuable lessons for the subsequent colonization of the Americas, particularly regarding the treatment of indigenous populations and the introduction of crops like sugarcane.
This expansion created conflict with Portugal, which had earlier established a presence in the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde and considered the area its sphere of influence. The discovery of America escalated this conflict. To resolve it, Isabella and Ferdinand signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, dividing the Atlantic between the two nations. This treaty allowed Portuguese settlement in Brazil and Spanish control over the Canaries.
The marriages of the Catholic Monarchs’ daughters, Isabella and Maria, to the King of Portugal helped ease tensions and fostered strong ties between the two royal houses, eventually leading to Philip II’s reign over Portugal in 1580.
The Organization of State and Government Institutions
During their reign (1479-1504), the Catholic Monarchs strengthened government institutions and laid the groundwork for the modern Spanish state. They achieved this by reviewing land grants awarded by previous kings to nobles defeated in the civil war and by utilizing resources from the Church, the bull of crusade, and their patronage of military orders.
With these resources, they established a standing army, the Holy Brotherhood, new courts (audiencias), a corps of ambassadors, and the office of viceroy. They reduced the influence of the high nobility in royal councils, favoring professionals instead. The Cortes (parliament) was convened only when the King required resources.
The newfound power of state institutions allowed the monarchs to exert greater control over the nobility and clergy. While these groups retained their privileges, the authority of the Crown became paramount.
Italian and North African Politics
The Catholic Monarchs’ foreign policy focused on securing allies through marriage alliances for their children and engaging in wars against France in Italy. However, there were differences in the foreign policy interests of Castile, which focused on the Atlantic, and Aragon, which was more concerned with the Mediterranean.
Aragon’s interests clashed with France in Italy. The monarchs also sought to forge alliances with England, Austria, and Flanders through strategic marriages of their children. One notable example is the marriage of their daughter Joanna to Philip the Handsome, son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.
The Italian Wars saw the rise of the renowned general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, known as “the Great Captain.” These wars concluded in 1502 with the Kingdom of Naples becoming part of the Crown of Aragon.
Castile’s Atlantic interests led to the conquest of the Canary Islands and the discovery of America. In North Africa, the monarchs conquered Melilla (1497), which was incorporated into Castile, and Oran and Algiers (1502), which became part of the Crown of Aragon. These conquests aimed to secure ports and bases to defend against the Ottoman Turks.
The Catholic Monarchs’ policies laid the foundation for the vast Spanish Empire of the 16th century.