The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain
The Problem of Unity in the Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Christian kingdoms consisted of four entities: the Crown of Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, and Castile. Castile, demographically and territorially dominant, suffered a severe political crisis during the reign of Henry IV. Isabella I succeeded to the Castilian throne, contesting Juana la Beltraneja’s claim. To strengthen their position and unite the Crown of Aragon with Castile, Isabella married Ferdinand II of Aragon.
The death of the monarch and the dispute over succession led to a civil war between supporters of Isabella and Juana la Beltraneja. Isabella’s victory solidified her claim to the throne and strengthened the union between Aragon and Castile.
The Catholic Monarchs’ Iberian Policy
The Catholic Monarchs, through military and diplomatic means, aimed to unite the entire Iberian Peninsula and control the Strait of Gibraltar. Key events include:
- Granada: The war began in response to a Muslim attack on Zahara. After a long siege, Granada was incorporated into the Crown of Castile.
- Roussillon and Cerdanya: Ferdinand regained these territories from France, under the condition that the Catholic Monarchs would not support France’s enemies.
- Navarra: Annexed to Castile in 1512 following a civil war.
- Failed Union with Portugal: Dynastic marriages were intended to unite the kingdoms, but premature deaths thwarted these plans.
International Politics of the Catholic Monarchs
The Catholic Monarchs’ primary foreign policy objective was to isolate France. They pursued alliances through marriages with England and the Holy Roman Empire. Spanish and French interests clashed in Italy, where wealthy and cultured Italian cities were politically vulnerable to the emerging European states.
The Birth of the Modern Spanish State
With the exception of the Inquisition, existing Castilian and Aragonese institutions were largely maintained. The kingdoms were united under a personal or dynastic union, ruled by the monarchs themselves.
Upon Isabella’s death, she willed the throne of Castile to her daughter Joanna. However, due to Joanna’s mental health, Ferdinand ruled as regent until their grandson, Charles, came of age. Joanna’s husband, Philip, briefly became regent, but upon his death, Ferdinand resumed the regency. The incomplete nature of the union is evident in several aspects:
- Trade: Customs barriers remained between the kingdoms.
- Legal System: No legal unification was attempted; instead, the laws of the various kingdoms were codified.
Territorial expansion under the Catholic Monarchs strengthened two key institutions:
- Viceroyalties: Delegated royal power in the monarchs’ absence.
- Specialized Councils: Provided governmental and advisory functions in specific areas.
The Union of Religion
The Catholic Monarchs pursued religious unity through three main actions:
- Expulsion of the Jews: Following the conquest of Granada, Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or leave Spain.
- Expulsion of the Mudejars: Initially, Mudejars (Muslims living under Christian rule) lived peacefully after the conquest of Granada. However, Cardinal Cisneros’ attempts to convert them led to rebellions. The Catholic Monarchs forced them to be baptized or leave Spain. Converted Muslims were known as Moriscos.
- The Inquisition: An ecclesiastical tribunal established to ensure religious orthodoxy and combat heresy.
The Spanish Economy
In the late 15th century, Spanish agriculture stagnated.
The Castilian Economy
The Mesta, an association of sheep farmers, received privileges from the Catholic Monarchs, leading to its growth. Wool export became the primary source of income for the Castilian economy. A consulate was established in Burgos to manage overseas wool sales.
The Economy of the Crown of Aragon
The Aragonese economy recovered in the late 15th century, boosted by the consolidation of Spanish rule in Italy and increased Mediterranean trade. Textile production became particularly important.
The Organization of the State
To consolidate their power, the Catholic Monarchs created new institutions:
- The Royal Council was reorganized, creating the Council of Castile and the Council of Aragon to advise the monarchs.
- Royal finances were strengthened by incorporating the assets of military orders and adjusting taxes.
- The Santa Hermandad, a civil militia, was established to maintain order.
- The authority of corregidores, royal officials in municipalities, was expanded, reducing local autonomy.
- Audiencias, or high courts, were created in Valladolid and Granada.