The Renaissance and Reformation: A Historical Overview
1. The Renaissance
1.1. A New Way of Thinking: Humanism
The main features of Humanism are:
- The rejection of the medieval mindset focused on God and the exaltation of human beings, considered to be endowed with reason and freedom.
- Inspiration from Greco-Roman culture.
- Interest and curiosity for science and technical progress.
- The use of vernacular languages as a vehicle of cultural transmission instead of Latin and Greek.
1.2. The Expansion of Humanism
Since the mid-fifteenth century, the invention of the printing press facilitated the spread of humanist ideas. Academies were major drivers of humanist thought, focusing their studies on language, literature, and philosophy. Universities played an important role in the formation and transmission of new knowledge.
2. The Reformation
2.1. The Causes of the Reformation
At the end of the Middle Ages, there was unease in some sections of society regarding the direction the Church had taken. The reasons for dissatisfaction were:
- The exaggerated luxury of the high hierarchy.
- Poor culture of the clergy.
- The sale of ecclesiastical offices.
Some humanists, like Erasmus of Rotterdam, criticized these practices and argued for a more intimate religiosity based on reading the Bible.
2.2. The Rupture of Martin Luther
Martin Luther began his criticism of the Church in 1517 with the publication of The 95 Theses against Catholic doctrine and the church hierarchy. Luther was supported by German princes and nobles, eager to seize church property and strengthen their authority against Emperor Charles V and the Pope. The Lutheran Reformation is based on three principles:
- Salvation by faith.
- The priesthood of all believers.
- The authority of the Bible.
Lutheranism spread rapidly throughout Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, England, and Switzerland.
2.3. Protestantism in Europe
New reformist doctrines emerged, including:
- Calvinism: Spread in Switzerland by John Calvin. Calvinism emphasized work as part of moral virtue and associated success in business with divine grace.
- Anglicanism: Emerged in England under King Henry VIII when Pope Clement VII refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
3. The Counter-Reformation
3.1. The Fight Against Protestantism
The Pope restored the Inquisition in 1542 in Italy and Spain to pursue those who deviated from the Church’s tenets. He also established the Congregation of the Index, which published a list of books contrary to Catholic doctrine and forbade believers from reading them. Those suspected of heresy were subjected to a trial called an auto-da-fé.
3.2. The Council of Trent
The Church hierarchy promoted a renewal movement within the Church called the Counter-Reformation. The Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, aimed to correct mistakes and defend the dogmas of the Catholic faith. The Council claimed that faith was important but that salvation was achieved through good works. It adopted a series of measures, including:
- Banning the sale of indulgences.
- Creating seminars to train clergy.
- Forcing bishops to reside in their dioceses.
3.3. The Spread of the Counter-Reformation
To disseminate the new religious spirit, the reform of many religious orders began in the mid-sixteenth century. New orders were also created, such as the Jesuits, founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola in 1537. This religious order had rigid discipline and reported directly to the Pope.
4. Renaissance Society and Art
4.1. Courtiers and Patrons
The new humanistic spirit spread throughout cities. The cult of individualism and personal effort, which favored enrichment, increased. There was also a process of secularization, and religion was no longer the center of cultural and spiritual life. The ideal man was no longer the medieval knight but the courteous, educated, and refined individual. The nobility who ruled Italian cities became patrons of the arts, driven by their economic prosperity and cultural interest.
4.2. A New Conception of Art
The Renaissance promoted the recovery of ancient Greco-Roman art. Painters and sculptors explored new themes arising from secular classical mythology. Artists wanted to depict the ideal of beauty in their works. They considered human beings as the most perfect work of God and were concerned with the study of nature and human anatomy. Architects assimilated the beauty of simplicity of line and harmony of proportions. Painters adopted perspective, based on mathematical rules of proportionality. Sculptors recovered the proportionality of the canons of classicism.
5. Early Renaissance Art
5.1. Architecture
Architects sought to dominate space by introducing simple and ordered elements inspired by Greco-Roman models, such as arches, columns, pediments, cornices, and domes.
5.2. Sculpture
Sculptors were interested in representing the human body, following classical models in terms of proportions and treatment of the nude.
5.3. Painting
The great innovations of Quattrocento artists were the rational use of perspective, which allowed them to represent depth on a flat surface, and the taste for the representation of nature and the psychology of characters.
6. High Renaissance Art
6.1. Architecture
Throughout the sixteenth century, the Popes were great patrons of the arts. Pope Julius II began the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica and commissioned works to Bramante and, later, Michelangelo. In northern Italy, Andrea Palladio was a prominent architect.
6.2. Sculpture
Michelangelo, also a painter, is considered the greatest sculptor of his time. His work focused on the expression of feelings rather than just proportions and balance. Another great sculptor was Benvenuto Cellini, who represented mythological subjects such as Perseus.
6.3. Painting
Leonardo da Vinci was a model of the uniquely gifted Renaissance artist in both artistic creation and science. Raphael stands out for his absolute mastery of art, portraits, and the elegance and harmony of his compositions. The Venetian school also gained prominence.
7. Northern Renaissance Art
7.1. Flanders
In Flanders, the Italian Renaissance had little influence. Painters developed a style characterized by attention to detail, realism, and portraits. The first generation of painters, still influenced by the Gothic, included Roger van der Weyden and Jan van Eyck. The next generation included Hans Memling and Hieronymus Bosch.
7.2. Germany
The victory of the Lutheran Reformation in Germany led to a decline in religious painting, which was prevalent in Italy and other Catholic countries. Portraits and landscapes became the favorite subjects of German painting. The Renaissance style was introduced in Germany by Albrecht Dürer.
7.3. France
The Renaissance spread very quickly in France, thanks to King Francis I, who surrounded himself with Italian artists at his court, including Leonardo da Vinci and Benvenuto Cellini. Architecture was particularly prominent, with the construction of numerous castles.