The Restoration and its Aftermath (1874-1939)
1. Foundations of the Restoration (1874-1898)
1.1 The Canovas System
The pronouncement of General Martínez Campos in December 1874 restored the monarchy under Alfonso XII. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo shaped the new political system, a conservative, parliamentary system, but not a democratic one. Conservatives welcomed the coup, hoping for stability after years of political turmoil. The 1876 Constitution, inspired by the 1845 version, defended traditional values while incorporating some democratic principles. Sovereignty was shared between the Crown and the Cortes, with the Crown holding veto power and appointing ministers. The Cortes comprised two chambers: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Catholicism was the state religion. A bill of rights existed, but its application was limited by ordinary laws.
The Canovas system rested on the Crown, dynastic parties (Conservative and Liberal), and the army. The monarchy acted as a referee, ensuring the alternation of power between the parties. The army, while nominally under civilian control, retained significant autonomy.
1.2 End of Military Conflicts
The Restoration brought an end to the Carlist Wars and the Ten Years’ War in Cuba. The Carlist cause lost legitimacy, and military successes by the Liberal army led to the Carlists’ surrender in 1876. The Foral regime was abolished, but a system of economic concessions was granted to Basque provinces. Increased troop deployments to Cuba led to the Zanjón Peace in 1878, promising reforms, including the abolition of slavery (approved in 1888). However, the failure to fully implement these reforms would lead to further conflict.
2. Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
Primo de Rivera’s coup met little resistance, and Alfonso XIII accepted it. His dictatorship aimed to maintain order. He founded the Patriotic Union, a party with a regenerationist program. Municipalities and county councils were dissolved, and the Somatén militia was created to maintain order. Economic growth and infrastructure development marked this period. However, discontent grew, particularly in Catalonia, due to centralizing policies. Primo de Rivera’s attempt to create an authoritarian constitution failed, and he resigned in 1930.
3. The Second Republic (1931-1936)
3.1 Political Parties
- CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights): Catholic party defending religion, order, and property.
- Radical Party: Initially successful, but lost support due to its policies.
- PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party): Experienced growth but faced criticism for its role in suppressing conflicts.
- Unionist Party: Advocated for unions and cooperatives.
- Radical-Socialist Party: Held extremist views.
- Republican Action: Led by Azaña, who became President of the Republic.
- Republican Union: A coalition of progressive Republicans.
- PNV (Basque Nationalist Party): Remained loyal to the Republic.
- PCE (Communist Party of Spain): Part of the Popular Front.
- ERC (Republican Left of Catalonia): Implemented the Catalan Statute.
- POUM (Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification): A communist party advocating for armed insurrection.
- Falange: A Spanish fascist party.
- Popular Front: A coalition of left-wing parties.
4. The Civil War (1936-1939)
The Civil War stemmed from ideological and class conflicts, exacerbated by nationalism, religion, and economic inequality. The Popular Front (left-wing parties) faced the National Front (right-wing parties). The uprising on July 18, 1937, succeeded in several areas, but the government controlled key resources and urban centers. The rebels were better organized. The war had several phases: the Battle of Madrid, the Northern Campaign, the Battle of Teruel, the Battle of the Ebro, and the final offensive on Catalonia and Madrid. Foreign intervention played a significant role, with Germany and Italy supporting the Nationalists and the Soviet Union aiding the Republicans.
4.1 Evolution of Republican Spain
Workers’ organizations armed themselves, and the government struggled to maintain control. Power shifted between different political forces. The Basque Statute was approved. The crisis of 1937 saw conflict between anarchists and the POUM, leading to Largo Caballero’s resignation and Negrín’s rise to power. The Republican government sought a negotiated surrender, but Franco demanded unconditional terms.
4.2 Evolution of Nationalist Spain
Lacking initial political plans, the Nationalists formed a National Board controlled by Franco, Queipo de Llano, and Mola. Franco consolidated power, unifying right-wing parties under the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS. He established a national-syndicalist state with fascist and Catholic influences.
4.3 Consequences of the War
The war resulted in widespread repression, executions, and exile. The economy was devastated, and the war ushered in four decades of Franco’s dictatorship.