The Restoration Era (1815-1848): Principles, Congress of Vienna, and Revolutions
The Restoration Era (1815-1830)
The Restoration, spanning 1815-1830, followed Napoleon’s downfall and saw the return of absolute monarchy. The 1815 Congress of Vienna brought together Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria to establish peace and order. This period witnessed counter-revolutionary waves in 1820, 1830, and 1848.
Principles of the Restoration
- Legitimacy: Restoration of the throne to its rightful owner, leading to absolute monarchy.
- Equilibrium: European balance of power, preventing any single nation from becoming too dominant.
- Intervention: Right to intervene in other states’ affairs if events impacted international stability.
The Charter regime emerged, acknowledging God’s authority while granting subjects certain rights.
The Congress of Vienna (1815)
The Congress of Vienna involved the victorious powers over Napoleon: Russia, Austria, Prussia, Britain, and later France. Austrian Chancellor Metternich played a key role, giving rise to the term “Metternich’s Europe.”
The Holy Alliance
The 1815 Holy Alliance, initiated by Tsar Alexander I, united Russia, Austria, and Prussia to intervene militarily against liberal or nationalist movements threatening absolute monarchies. Britain later joined, forming the Quadruple Alliance, and France joined in 1818, creating the Quintuple Alliance.
Liberalism
Liberalism championed freedom of thought, action, and election, reflecting 19th-century bourgeois ideals. It drew inspiration from Enlightenment ideas and Adam Smith’s economic liberalism.
Principles of Liberalism
- Natural rights: Liberty, property, and equality before the law.
- Division of powers: Legislative (parliament), executive (government), and independent judiciary.
- National sovereignty: The nation as the source of power.
- Constitution: Limiting the king’s authority.
Key liberal thinkers included Constant and Tocqueville.
Economic Liberalism
Economic liberalism advocated for individual liberties and private property, with minimal state intervention in the economy. Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776) laid the foundation for this theory.
Nationalism
Nationalism is the desire of people with shared language, religion, traditions, and customs to form their own nations. Several factors contributed to its rise, including the French Revolution, Napoleonic invasions, and Romantic ideals.
Nationalism in Europe
Europe saw divided nations, such as Germany’s 39 independent states. Multinational states like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire faced nationalist pressures. Nationalist movements gained momentum after 1850, often linked with liberal ideals.
The Revolutions of 1820
The 1820 revolutions, concentrated in the Mediterranean and Eastern Europe, employed new tactics like secret societies. Causes included bourgeois efforts to impose liberalism and an economic crisis from 1816-1819.
The Revolutions of 1830
The 1830 revolutions, more impactful than those of 1820, affected France and other European nations. Causes included the pursuit of liberal and nationalist ideals, an agricultural crisis in 1827, and social unrest stemming from unemployment and poverty.
The 1830 Revolution in France
The July Ordinances of 1830, restricting press freedom and voting rights, sparked the revolution in France. The “Three Glorious Days” (July 27-29) led to Charles X’s abdication. Louis Philippe ascended the throne, restoring the Charter of 1814 with expanded rights and freedoms.
Expansion of the Revolutionary Movement
Belgium, an artificial entity combining Dutch-speaking Holland and French-speaking Belgium, sought independence. The London Conference of 1831 granted Belgium independence under Leopold I.
Implications of the 1830 Revolution
The 1830 revolutions marked the decline of the Restoration system, dividing European powers into liberal and absolutist camps. The principle of legitimacy was challenged by the rise of new monarchs like Leopold I of Belgium.
The Revolutions of 1848
The 1848 revolutions saw clashes between moderate and democrat liberals, with the latter advocating for universal suffrage. Workers’ demands emerged due to industrialization and socialist ideas gained traction.
Causes of the 1848 Revolutions
- Economic crisis of 1845-47, including a potato famine.
- Liberal and nationalist movements, coupled with workers’ demands.
- Social unrest caused by hunger, poverty, and unemployment.
The 1848 Revolution in France
Economic hardship and political dissatisfaction with Louis Philippe fueled protests in France. The government’s interference with political banquets led to an uprising, Louis Philippe’s overthrow, and the establishment of the Second French Republic with universal male suffrage.