The Restoration in Spain (1875-1923): Politics, Society, and Foreign Policy
The Restoration in Spain (1875-1923)
Political and Social Context
The Restoration period in Spain, beginning in 1875, aimed to establish stability after years of turmoil. A key tactic employed during this time was the division of the island into sectors, concentrating the rural population to control rebellions. The economic consequences of these actions, along with the harshness of the protests, led the U.S. Senate to advise President Cleveland to recognize the state of war in Cuba and offer mediation, demanding autonomy for the island.
The death of Cánovas del Castillo further worsened the situation, as the United States exerted diplomatic and economic pressure. The U.S. sought to defend its economic interests and gain control of the Atlantic-Pacific passage. The new U.S. President, William McKinley, protested the Spanish government’s harsh policies in Cuba and even attempted to negotiate the purchase of Cuba for $300 million, a proposal rejected by the Spanish monarchy.
The Spanish-American War (1898)
The bombing of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana harbor led to the declaration of war by the United States against Spain in February 1898. Spain, despite its industrial potential, faced a difficult war scenario with battles taking place in both the Pacific and Atlantic. The Spanish fleet in the Philippines was destroyed by the American fleet under Commodore Dewey in the Battle of Manila Bay. In Cuba, U.S. troops under Theodore Roosevelt landed and defeated the Spanish forces, leading to the surrender of Santiago de Cuba. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in December 1898.
The Treaty of Paris and its Aftermath
The Treaty of Paris recognized Cuban independence (although Cuba was occupied by the U.S.) and ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States. The remaining Spanish possessions in the Pacific were sold to Germany. The Disaster of ’98 represented a major failure for Spain and led to a period of national introspection and calls for regeneration and modernization.
Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
Political Regeneration and the Failure of Maurism
The reign of Alfonso XIII began with attempts at political regeneration, led by Antonio Maura. His objective was to reduce corruption and broaden the political base of the regime. Serious problems arose in Catalonia, fueled by worker anarchism and regionalism. The Tragic Week of 1909, culminating in the execution of Francisco Ferrer Guardia, led to Maura’s downfall.
Consolidation of Nationalist Ideas
Regionalist movements gained strength, particularly in Catalonia and the Basque Country. In Catalonia, the Catalan Solidarity movement represented the bourgeois sector, while in the Basque Country, the conservative Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) emerged as a significant force.
The Rise of Republicanism
Republicanism gained momentum, offering an alternative to the monarchy. Alejandro Lerroux founded the Republican Party in 1908, capitalizing on popular discontent.
The Time of Riots and Social Unrest
The period between 1912 and 1918 was marked by numerous strikes and social unrest. The end of World War I brought economic hardship, leading to further unrest. The years 1919-1921 saw a surge in revolutionary syndicalism and anarchist activity, particularly in Andalusia and Catalonia. The government responded with repression, exemplified by the actions of Martínez Anido in Barcelona.
The Moroccan Problem
The colonial adventure in Morocco became a major issue for Spain in the early 20th century. The Disaster of ’98 had shifted Spain’s focus to North Africa. The Franco-Spanish treaty of 1912 established a protectorate over Morocco, but the situation remained unstable and costly.
The Crisis of 1917 and the Decline of the Cánovas System
The economic euphoria of World War I faded by 1917. Rising living costs and the example of the Russian Revolution fueled social unrest. Military protests, initially against favoritism, expanded to include NCOs and postal workers. Regionalist, reformist, radical, and socialist groups demanded change. The government’s authority weakened, and the Cánovas system began to unravel.
The Role of the Army and the Church
The Church and the State
The Church, initially distanced from the state, gradually regained influence during the Restoration. The Constitution of 1876 allowed the Church to recover its heritage and intellectual influence. By the late 19th century, the Church had reorganized and expanded its presence in Spanish society.
Identification with Conservative Groups
The Church, particularly in rural areas, aligned itself with conservative groups, often defending the interests of landowners. This alliance helped the Church regain some of its lost power but also led to ideological confrontations with labor movements.
Spanish Foreign Policy (1875-1923)
Imperialism and its Challenges
Spain entered the age of imperialism with limited resources and facing the ambitions of other European powers. The main goals of Spanish foreign policy were to gain international support for the new regime and revise existing treaties. Cánovas favored a cautious foreign policy, while the Liberals preferred a more active approach. Spain initially adopted free trade but later shifted towards protectionism.
The Loss of the Colonies and the Moroccan Question
The Spanish-American War resulted in the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The remaining Pacific possessions were sold to Germany. Spain then turned its attention to Morocco, hoping to establish a new colonial presence in North Africa. The Moroccan adventure, however, proved to be a costly and challenging endeavor that would dominate Spanish foreign policy for years to come.
Conclusion
The Restoration period in Spain was a time of both stability and upheaval. Attempts at political regeneration and modernization were hampered by social unrest, regional tensions, and the legacy of colonialism. The Crisis of 1917 exposed the weaknesses of the Cánovas system, paving the way for further instability and the eventual rise of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in 1923.