The Restoration in Spain: A Period of Political and Social Change
The Restoration in Spain
Overview
Following the Democratic Sexenio and the fall of the First Republic, the Restoration period began, marked by the return of the Bourbon monarchy. This was achieved through the Sagunto military coup, led by General Martínez Campos. Alphonse XII’s Sandhurst Manifesto promised a constitutional monarchy upon his return, ushering in a moderate system with reforms. The Restoration comprised three stages: the reign of Alfonso XII (1875-1885), the regency of Maria Christina of Austria (1885-1905), and the reign of Alfonso XIII (1905-1931). However, the Restoration’s political system effectively ended in 1923 with Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship and the abolishment of the Constitution.
The Cánovas System
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo created the political system, known as the Cánovas system, influenced by the British bipartisan parliamentary model. Cánovas founded the Conservative Party, while Práxedes Mateo Sagasta founded the Liberal Party. These dynastic parties supported the monarchy. The Liberals advocated for universal male suffrage and anti-clericalism, while the Conservatives favored census-based voting. Both parties represented the oligarchy and bourgeoisie. The 1885 Pact of Pardo established the bipartisan system known as the Turno Pacífico (peaceful rotation).
The Constitution of 1876
The system was based on the Constitution of 1876, Spain’s longest-lasting constitution. This conservative document, largely attributed to Cánovas, established a bicameral Cortes with an appointed Senate and an elected Congress of Deputies (initially based on census suffrage, later changed to universal male suffrage in 1890 by the Liberals). Sovereignty was theoretically shared but largely left to the parties by Alfonso XII. Between 1880 and 1890, the Liberals introduced further freedoms, including those of the press, association, and academia.
Electoral Fraud and Caciquismo
The electoral system was rife with fraud to maintain the Turno. With an electorate of around 8.5 million, three voter types emerged: urban voters (characterized by abstention and distorted results), rural voters (manipulated by local bosses), and the caciques (powerful figures who controlled votes through threats or favors). This manipulation is known as caciquismo.
Opposition to the Restoration
Several groups opposed the system: Carlists, Republicans, new nationalist movements, and the nascent socialist labor movement. The Carlists split into two factions: one led by Vázquez de Mella (participating in parliamentary politics) and the other by Nocedal (forming a fundamentalist Catholic party). Cánovas abolished Basque and Navarrese self-governing institutions. The Republican party, initially weakened by the First Republic’s failure, saw the emergence of the Republican Union in 1907. Nationalist movements arose in response to the centralizing policies of the 1876 Constitution.
Nationalist Movements
- Basque Nationalism: Emerging in the 1890s, fueled by the loss of privileges and cultural concerns, Sabino Arana founded the PNV (Basque Nationalist Party) in 1895, initially advocating for independence but later evolving towards autonomy.
- Galician Nationalism: Primarily a cultural movement (Rexurdimiento) focused on the Galician language, driven by figures like Rosalía de Castro, who criticized centralizing policies and resulting emigration.
- Catalan Nationalism: Beginning as a cultural revival of Catalan language and culture, it evolved politically with the Bases de Manresa in the late 19th century. The Catalan Regionalist League, led by figures like Cambo and Prat de la Riva, advocated for autonomy and represented the Catalan industrial bourgeoisie.