The Restoration in Spain: A Political History (1874-1923)
The Restoration in Spain (1874-1923)
Background
Tired of the uncertainty and political essays of the previous period, the idea of a restoration took shape. Led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the plan was to proclaim Alfonso XII, the son of Isabella II, as king and restore the legitimacy of the Bourbon monarchy. The Alfonsinos, as they were called, had the support of the landed gentry, the Catalan bourgeoisie, Cuban interests, large sections of the army eager for change, and the Vatican, hoping to end the revolutionary anticlericalism.
The Restoration Begins
Cánovas prepared for Alfonso’s return, drafting a manifesto on December 1st, 1874, which was signed at the Sandhurst military academy in England. However, General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII as king in Sagunto that same month. Against Cánovas’ wishes, the Bourbon monarchy was restored by a coup, when he would have preferred legal procedures. On January 15th, 1875, the new king did not disappoint. His youth and intelligence won popular sympathy, and he became a symbol of stability.
Phases of the Restoration
The Restoration can be divided into three phases:
- From 1874 until 1885, the date of Alfonso XII’s death.
- The regency of Queen Maria Christina of Austria during the minority of Alfonso XIII.
- Starting in 1902 with the majority of Alfonso XIII.
Strictly speaking, the Restoration only refers to the first two phases, as the Cánovas system went into crisis in 1923 with the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.
The Cánovas System
The Restoration was devised by Cánovas del Castillo, with the help of Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, a pragmatic politician from the Liberal Union. Cánovas had a clear roadmap for the nation. The Cánovas system had several key principles:
- Overcoming Instability: The restoration aimed to overcome the political instability of the previous period and achieve social and political peace.
- Synthesis of Old and New: Cánovas sought a synthesis between traditional values and progressive ideals. This included key principles like private property, the monarchy, the dynasty, and joint rule of the king with Parliament. These were non-negotiable for any Spaniard.
- Pragmatism: Cánovas believed that policy should be adapted to the circumstances of time and place.
- Civilian Control: Civil power was superior to the military, as it represented the national will expressed through suffrage.
- Consensus and Compromise: Cánovas believed in seeking consensus through agreements and transactions. He advocated for a spirit of compromise (possibilism) to achieve a stable system.
The Constitution of 1876
To solidify the system, a new constitution was needed. Cánovas convened a Constitutional Assembly, which prepared a draft presented to the Courts and promulgated on June 30th, 1876. This constitution lasted until 1931. It was a moderate document, balancing the principles of the 1845 and 1869 constitutions. It consisted of 89 articles divided into 13 titles, covering individual rights and the political mechanisms to protect them. Article 18 established the principle of shared sovereignty between the king and the courts. The king could promulgate laws, dissolve Parliament, and had veto power. The state also recognized Catholicism as the official religion, while Article 11 provided for freedom of worship.
The Turno Pacífico
Inspired by the British parliamentary system, Cánovas envisioned two main political parties alternating in power: the dynastic parties. He formed the Conservative Party, supported by the industrial bourgeoisie and the urban middle classes. Sagasta led the Liberal Party. These two parties, along with the monarchs Alfonso XII and Maria Cristina, understood each other perfectly. To ensure a peaceful transfer of power (el turno pacífico), a party needed the confidence of both the courts and the Crown. However, this system led to electoral fraud. The Minister of the Interior would decide which deputies would be elected for each district. Civil governors manipulated elections through agreements with local bosses, who bought votes or used coercion. If these measures failed, they resorted to ballot stuffing. This system favored the interests of the oligarchy and the caciques (local political bosses), who controlled rural areas and maintained their power through patronage and corruption.
Challenges to the System
Despite its apparent stability, the Restoration faced several challenges:
- Persistence of Republicanism: The Republican party, though weakened, remained a force in Spanish politics.
- Rise of the Labor Movement: Workers and peasants were increasingly drawn to anarchism and socialism, leading to the formation of unions and strikes. The socialist movement, led by Pablo Iglesias, gained ground in urban and industrial areas, while anarchism found support among workers and peasants, particularly in Andalusia and Catalonia.
- Regionalism and Nationalism: Catalan and Basque nationalism emerged as significant forces, challenging the centralist nature of the Spanish state. Catalan nationalism, rooted in cultural and linguistic identity, gained momentum with the Renaixença (Catalan Renaissance) and the Bases de Manresa, a document outlining Catalan autonomy. Basque nationalism, initially conservative and Catholic, was fueled by the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), founded in 1894 by Sabino Arana. Andalusian nationalism, led by Blas Infante, was less separatist and focused on social issues.
Conclusion
The Restoration period in Spain was marked by a complex interplay of political forces. The Cánovas system, while achieving a degree of stability, was undermined by its inherent flaws, such as electoral fraud and the dominance of the oligarchy. The rise of new political movements, including republicanism, socialism, anarchism, and regional nationalism, posed significant challenges to the established order. These tensions would eventually contribute to the downfall of the Restoration and the tumultuous events of the 20th century.