The Restoration in Spain: Political Order and Constitution of 1876
1. The Sandhurst Manifesto: Canovas’ Vision for Spain
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo’s political regime in 1875 reflected both the strengths and weaknesses of the era. This period is often referred to as the Spain of Cánovas. The Sandhurst Manifesto, written by Cánovas and sent by the young Alfonso XII on December 1, 1874, serves as the best summary of Cánovas’ project for the Alfonsine Restoration. This document, a response to the numerous birthday congratulations Alfonso received, perfectly synthesizes the principles underpinning the new regime.
Cánovas aimed to establish his political leadership by acting as an arbiter between the moderates and the Alfonsinos. His initial steps during the Restoration focused on achieving constitutional and political consolidation, along with establishing peace among civilians and the military in northern Spain and Cuba. To accomplish this, he utilized two primary tools: a new liberal-conservative party and a soldier-king. Cánovas also sought to appease the moderates by implementing measures such as press and public order control and restoring the Church’s position.
During the political transition, the struggle between the moderates and Cánovas centered on three key issues:
- The return of Isabella II
- Reinstatement of the 1845 Constitution
- Re-establishment of Catholic unity
2. The Constitution of 1876 and the New Political Order
Following the groundwork laid for the new regime’s definition and political consolidation, the next crucial step was to approve a new constitution. This process, orchestrated by Cánovas, faced strong resistance from the moderates who opposed the proposed constitution. The process also played a significant role in shaping the new liberal-conservative party, which became the cornerstone of the regime and Cánovas’ primary objective during the political transition.
The Manifesto of the Notables, drafted by a commission of 39 prominent figures, served as a pre-election manifesto and a call for consensus. The ensuing elections, marred by fraud, resulted in a victory for the new Conservative party, which would subsequently approve, develop, and implement the new Constitution.
The Constitution of 1876 stands as the most significant in Spanish constitutional history and the best embodiment of Cánovas’ project: pragmatic, flexible, eclectic, and ambiguous. It drew inspiration from both the 1845 (moderate) and 1868 (radical liberal) constitutions. The new Constitution upheld the rights and freedoms established in 1868, though some were later restricted, and incorporated the doctrinal foundations of the 1845 moderate constitution. Its two most innovative and conciliatory aspects were the regulation of religious tolerance and the composition of the Senate.
2.1 The Policies of the Conservatives
To address the country’s political fragility, the Conservatives had to tackle two major challenges:
The Second Carlist War: Carlist resistance had two main geographical centers:
- In central Spain (Castilla-La Mancha, Aragon), General Cabrera’s declaration acknowledging Alfonso XII’s legitimacy played a crucial role in quelling the resistance.
- The resistance in Catalonia was suppressed in January 1875 when Martínez Campos assumed command. The capture of Olot and Seo de Urgell, key Carlist strongholds, marked the end of the war in Catalonia.
- The campaign in the north (Basque Country and Navarre) proved to be the most protracted. Two regular armies clashed, with the liberals eventually outnumbering the Carlists four to one. Alfonso XII’s assumption of supreme command bolstered his image as a soldier-king. His entry into San Sebastián and Pamplona signaled the end of the war and his triumphant return to Madrid.
Public Policy: Cánovas employed repression and control of liberties selectively, without vindictiveness, and without hindering the political activities of defeated groups. The Law of January 10, 1877, marked the end of Cánovas’ dictatorship and the beginning of the regulation of freedoms, including freedom of the press, a contentious issue throughout the 19th century.
2.2 The Turno Político and Political Parties
The true test of the regime’s consolidation lay in the implementation of the turno político, the alternating access to power by different political forces. This required the existence of two distinct parties, both fundamentally loyal to the constitutional monarchy and Cánovas’ framework.
The Conservative Party: It began to take shape during the revolutionary Sexenio. However, its consolidation was hampered by tensions between the moderates and Cánovas.
The Liberal Party: Its formation took longer, resulting in a later entry into government. It was a diverse and loosely-knit party, composed of individuals ranging from those aligned with Cánovas to conservatives reluctant to relinquish power. This heterogeneity ensured respect for the Constitution and discouraged any revolutionary temptations.
During the latter half of the period, pressure mounted on the king to commission the Liberals to form a government. This occurred following Cánovas’ resignation and Sagasta’s appointment. Internal rivalries and difficulties in distributing political offices became apparent. To maintain balance among the various factions, Sagasta prioritized groups with strong electoral prospects over their initial representation within the party.
The Liberal party encompassed a wide range of ideological viewpoints, primarily divided into two incompatible factions: the Democrats and the rightists. This division would hinder the development of a coherent liberal agenda.