The Restoration in Spain: Political System and Social Change (1875-1890)
Introduction
The Revolution of 1868 and the brief republican regime failed to establish political stability, culminating in 1875 with the start of the “Restoration”: the reign of Alfonso XII (1875-1885), son of Isabella II, and the regency of his wife, Maria Cristina. This period saw the return of some features of the pre-democratic Sexenio, particularly the political dominance of an elite composed of leaders from the major parties, heirs to the old moderate and progressive groups, now called “conservative” and “liberal.”
Key Political Figures
Two figures characterized the Restoration: Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Práxedes Mateo Sagasta.
The Cánovas System, the Constitution of 1876, and the Turno Pacífico
On March 1, 1874, General Pavia’s coup led to General Serrano taking the head of the government with two goals: imposing a military regime to ensure order and ending Carlism. Serrano transitioned from head of a republic to a personal dictatorship, gaining support from the bourgeoisie and middle class for the Alfonsine cause.
Alfonsino groups, led by Cánovas, were not supporters of Pavia’s coup and military dictatorship. They established contact with Alfonso de Borbón, who signed the Manifesto of Sandhurst, written by Cánovas. However, without Cánovas’s direct involvement, General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain on December 29, 1874, after his uprising in Sagunto. Cánovas, though preferring a less abrupt transition, recognized the army’s support and appealed to the bourgeoisie.
His initial actions included suspending newspapers, establishing a special court for press offenses, eliminating civil marriage, restoring relations with the Church, addressing grievances related to the Crown, maintaining order, and controlling the opposition. He also called for Constitutional Courts and universal suffrage, clearly aligning himself with “conservatism.”
The Constitution of 1876
This conservative constitution aimed to compromise between the moderate constitution of 1845 and the liberal one of 1869. Its features included shared sovereignty, a declaration of individual rights and freedoms, separation of powers (legislative with the King and Cortes, executive vested in the Crown, and an independent judiciary), Catholicism as the state religion, and a centralized state organization.
With the king’s support, Cánovas led the government from 1875-1881 and created a political system that remained largely unchanged throughout the Restoration.
The Cánovas System and the Turno Pacífico
Antonio Cánovas was the key figure in the Bourbon Restoration. From 1873, he championed the Alfonsine cause. His political system had two objectives: establishing the monarchy and creating a constitutional framework based on an eclectic political philosophy.
Cánovas believed the army should fulfill its constitutional mission and generals should stay out of politics. This new scheme gained wide support from the old nobility, landowners, and financiers, who shared interests in safeguarding social order and property. Cánovas’s model represented a return to the moderate liberal society before 1868, but with new political practices.
The two main political parties were the Conservative Party (Cánovas) and the Liberal Fusionist Party (Sagasta). The turno pacífico allowed for a peaceful and agreed-upon alternation of power between these two parties, preventing warlordism and ensuring stability. This system began with a Conservative victory in the first elections, during which the new constitution was drafted.
By 1885, the system began to show cracks, with electoral distortion becoming increasingly problematic. Caciquismo, the socio-political despotism prevalent in late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Spain, involved powerful figures in rural areas controlling votes and rigging elections for official candidates.
Opposition to the System
Three main republican groups existed: the possibilists or historic republicans (Castelar), who favored conservative democracy; the federalists, closely aligned with labor associations; and the progressive democrats (Ruiz Zorrilla), who sought regime change through subversive activities. Between 1875 and 1890, republicans had limited representation in Congress. Their chances of success were small due to suspicion from the turno parties and lack of widespread worker support. The introduction of universal suffrage in the 1890s improved their electoral results.
The Labor Movement
Labor organizations were divided into Marxist and anarchist factions. In 1874, General Serrano outlawed organizations of the First International, forcing them to operate in secrecy.
The Anarchist Movement
Anarchism gained significant traction in Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, and Andalusia. In the late 1880s, workers and peasants involved in anarchism focused on union activism and demands. The authorities’ harsh response fueled a cycle of action and repression, leading to the labeling of all anarchism as violent and radical.