The Revolution of 1868 and the First Spanish Republic
Political Instability Following the Reign of Espartero
After the outbreak of social conflicts resulting from the severe economic situation during the progressive biennium, widespread popular mobilizations relocated to the country’s political crisis, prompting the replacement of Espartero with O’Donnell. After a brief rule by O’Donnell, the Queen called upon the moderates. Narvaez, their leader, ruled until 1858.
During the biennium of 1856-1858, there was a return to the institutions of 1854. In response, O’Donnell organized a centrist party, the Liberal Union. The movement around O’Donnell expressed the desire to broaden the social bases and policies of the regime to attract progressives and prevent their permanent isolation from internal decisions. However, peasant and republican uprisings and the failure of O’Donnell’s conciliatory liberal program led to his fall in 1863, after five years in power.
The Reign of Isabel II and the Revolution of 1868
The authoritarian actions of the government between 1863 and 1868 increased opposition to Isabel II. In 1866, progressives and democrats agreed on a minimum program in Ostend: the dethronement of Isabel II and the convening of Constituent Cortes to decide the future. O’Donnell’s death in 1867 pushed the Unionists towards the revolutionary cause, culminating in the Revolution of 1868.
The revolutionary period, between the collapse of Queen Elizabeth II’s reign and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, took place between 1868 and the establishment of the First Republic. The Revolution of 1868, which started in Cadiz under the command of Generals Serrano and Prim, was furthered by Admiral Topete. It quickly spread throughout Andalusia, where government troops under the command of Novaliches were defeated at Alcolea. Faced with defeat, Elizabeth II took refuge in France.
The revolution was consolidated thanks to the actions of provincial and local revolutionary juntas that spread the revolutionary political power. Power was exercised by the Revolutionary Council of Madrid, which entrusted it to Serrano. He took measures to stabilize the revolution: controlling the state administration and convening Constituent Cortes, paving the way for the legal and political configuration of a new regime.
The Constitution of 1869 and the Reign of Amadeo I
The elections gave a majority to the coalition of Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats, although Republicans showed their power and influence under universal suffrage. The elected Cortes confirmed General Serrano in his post while preparing to implement a new constitutional text.
Inspired by the constitutions of 1812 and 1837, the Constitution of 1869 was considered the first democratic Constitution in Spanish history. Its features included a comprehensive bill of rights, recognition of national sovereignty, and the conception of the king’s power as that of a constitutional monarch. Judicial power resided in the courts of law, and the right to freedom of religion was recognized.
With the Constitution sanctioned, a new king had to be found to inaugurate a new dynasty. Finally, thanks to the efforts of Prim, the Italian Prince Amadeo accepted the throne of Spain. The young monarch began his reign fighting Republicans, Carlists, and supporters of Alfonso. His position was not easy. He had to deal with two political groups: the Constitutionalists led by Sagasta, who constituted the right, and the Radicals led by Ruiz Zorrilla, along with the Democrats. Progressive social and economic forces joined the opposition of Republicans and Carlists. The former opposed the monarchy, while the latter took up arms in May 1872.
After two years of reign, on February 11, 1873, Amadeo I presented his abdication from the crown, and that same day, the First Republic was proclaimed.
The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic lasted from February 11, 1873, until January 3, 1874. During this period, there were four presidents: Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmerón, and Castelar. The establishment of the First Republic was the only alternative to the crisis of the democratic monarchy. Figueras’ attempt to build a federal republic faced opposition from both the Radicals and the Federalists.
When Figueras resigned, Pi y Margall called a general election, facing two major problems: the escalation of the Carlist War and the Cantonalist movement. The electoral defeat and the insurrection of 1872 encouraged the Carlists to take military action. The fall of Amadeo I and the subsequent weakness of the First Republic allowed them to obtain some military advantages in the Basque Country, Navarre, and Catalonia. They were definitively defeated in February 1876 by Generals Jovellar, Quesada, and Martínez Campos.
The Cantonalist movement was a resurgence of regional and local republican movements encouraged by the exaltation of the Cantonalist movement. It showed the weakness of the Republican government. After the brief presidencies of Salmerón and Castelar, who acted firmly by applying the death penalty, calling in the army to impose order, strengthening the power of the state, and abolishing the federal principle, the Cantonalist campaign (led by Pavia and Martínez Campos) became the arbiter of the situation.
On January 3, 1874, a coup by General Pavia forced Castelar to resign, thus beginning the “Republic of 74” chaired by Serrano. However, the Alfonsine cause, under the direction of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, continued to gain support. Against the will of Cánovas, General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII, son of Elizabeth II, King of Spain after his triumph in Sagunto.