The Revolution of 1868 and the Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)
The Revolution of 1868: The Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)
1868
In September 1868, a glorious revolution was carried out by progressives, unionists, and democrats. It began with an uprising led by Admiral Topete in Cadiz, who was joined by Generals Prim, Serrano, and Dulce. Popular support ensured their success. The revolution led to the abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II.
1869
An interim government was formed, chaired by General Serrano. A Constituent Assembly was summoned, elected by universal male suffrage, to draft a new constitution.
Features of the 1869 Constitution:
- National Sovereignty
- Division of Powers:
- Executive: The King, as head of state, exercises power through his ministers.
- Legislative: Bicameral Cortes (Parliament) chosen by universal male suffrage.
- Judicial: Courts of Justice
- Comprehensive Bill of Rights
- Form of Government: Democratic Constitutional Monarchy
- Separation of Church and State
Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873)
At the suggestion of General Prim, Amadeo of Savoy (son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy) became King of Spain. Three days before his arrival, his main supporter, General Prim, was assassinated. His short reign was fraught with difficulties:
- The nobility, the church, and the landed gentry did not accept him because he was a foreigner.
- Carlists and moderate Republicans opposed him.
- The political system was unstable, built on a two-party system: the Constitutional Party (Unionists and Progressives) led by Sagasta, representing the right wing of the regime, and the Radical Party (Progressives and Democrats) led by Ruiz Zorrilla, representing the left wing.
- The working class was dissatisfied with the serious economic situation, leading to demonstrations, strikes, and unrest.
- The country faced two wars: the Second Carlist War (Carlists claiming the throne for Carlos VII) and the Cuban Ten Years’ War.
After two years of reign, Amadeo I abdicated and returned to Italy. On the same day, the First Republic was proclaimed.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
A new constitution was written in 1873, establishing Spain as a federal republic composed of 15 states, including Cuba and Puerto Rico. In many aspects, it resembled the 1869 Constitution. The Republic faced a hostile environment:
Problems:
- The state was bankrupt.
- The country faced two wars: the Second Carlist War and the Cuban insurrection.
- Republicans were divided into federalists and unitarians.
Four presidents held office in a single year:
- Figueras: Failed to establish a federal republic due to clashes between federalist and unitarian Republicans.
- Pi y Margall: During his rule, the Cantonalist movement started in Cartagena and spread rapidly. Provinces disobeyed the central government and declared independence. The Cantonalist movement brought the country to the brink of political fragmentation and exposed the weakness of the republican government.
- Salmerón: His government was short-lived. He refused to sign death sentences against Cantonalists.
- Castelar: He used the army to restore order and halt the Cantonalist movement, governing in an authoritarian manner.
In January 1874, General Pavia staged a coup, dissolving the Cortes, ending Castelar’s government, and the First Republic.
The Republic of 1874
A provisional government was formed, headed by General Serrano, who governed authoritatively. Meanwhile, the royalists, led by Cánovas del Castillo, prepared for the return of the Bourbon monarchy. The coup of General Martínez Campos in Sagunto on December 29, 1874, led to the proclamation of Alfonso XII as King of Spain.
Queen Isabella II (1833-1868)
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The Moderates, led by Narváez, controlled power.
Constitution of 1845:
It reflected the political agenda of the Moderate Liberal Party.
Features:
- Shared sovereignty (King and Cortes)
- Division of Powers:
- Executive: Rested with the King, who had broad powers (appointing ministers, senators, dissolving the Cortes).
- Legislative: Bicameral Cortes (Senate appointed by the Crown; Congress of Deputies elected by census suffrage).
- Judicial: Courts of Justice
- Restricted citizen rights and freedoms.
- Denominational state (Catholicism as the official religion)
Concordat of 1851:
The Church recognized the land expropriations carried out by Mendizábal. In return, the state became denominational and accepted Church control over education.
Administrative Reforms:
- Establishment of the province as the territorial demarcation, under the direction of a civil governor.
- Municipal Law (1848): Mayors were appointed by the Crown.
- Reform of the tax system, making it more efficient and equitable (taxes paid according to wealth).
- Creation of the Bank of Spain.
- Establishment of the Civil Guard by the Duke of Ahumada to ensure the safety of roads and railways.
The Moderate Party’s increasingly conservative policies, political scandals, and ongoing corruption led to a coup led by General O’Donnell in Vicálvaro (Madrid), known as the Vicalvarada. The Queen was forced to call upon the Progressives, who formed a government headed by Espartero.
The Constitution of 1812
Features:
- Division of Powers:
- Executive: Vested in the King and his ministers, but limited by the Cortes. The King had to accept the government and was involved in lawmaking.
- Legislative: Unicameral Cortes elected every two years by universal male suffrage.
- Judicial: Independent courts of justice.
- Comprehensive Bill of Rights and Freedoms: Equality before the law, inviolability of domicile, freedom of the press, freedom of expression, etc.
- State Religion: Catholicism was the official religion, and the state was obligated to support it.
- Form of Government: Constitutional Monarchy
Functions of the Cortes:
- Drafting legislation
- Voting on budgets
- Intervention in the succession to the Crown
- Approval of international treaties
- Command of the army