The Rise and Fall of Communism: A Global Perspective

Posted on Oct 23, 2024 in History

The Rise of Real Socialism

The Formation of the Communist Bloc and Stalin’s Strategy

After 1945, the Soviet Union’s prestige peaked as one of the victorious great powers. However, the influence of communist parties remained low in the countries invaded by the Soviet army: East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. Stalin forced local communists to cooperate with other political forces in coalition governments. From 1947 to 1953, the Communists seized power through the following steps:

  • Local communists attracted socialist parties or other political groups into a new, broader communist party.
  • The communist party purged itself of “revolutionaries” or “nationalists” deemed too violent or independent.
  • Stalinist leaders with proven loyalty were placed at the head of the party.

The state was organized on the Soviet model (single party, police terror, personality cult). These countries were termed “democratic republics” or “people’s democracies” and became known as “socialist democracies.” The Communist Party claimed to represent all the interests of the people. The economy was planned and centralized in an authoritarian manner, with the primary objective of industrializing and developing the country. Forced collectivization of agriculture was carried out, and heavy industry was prioritized over consumer goods. The development of these countries was subject to the interests of the USSR through organizations like COMECON (1949) and the Warsaw Pact (1955).

Local Support for Communism

The degree of support for this process varied:

  • Yugoslavia: Maximum support, aided by Josip Broz Tito. Soviet intervention was minimal, allowing for the creation of a national socialist model that was condemned by Stalin.
  • Czechoslovakia: The transition to a communist state was not easy. In 1948, the “Prague Coup” led by Gottwald established a single-party regime. Stalin left other countries outside the USSR’s direct influence to fend for themselves.

Until Stalin’s death in 1953, the USSR and its satellite countries lived under a strict police state. The Soviet model and regime continued to enjoy prestige among the Western left and Third World politicians for the following reasons:

  • Rapid industrialization of backward societies.
  • Provision of essential social services at low or no cost.

The Price of the Soviet Regime

The cost of this model in terms of effort, lives, and fundamental freedoms was considerable, even if it did achieve some progress in backward societies.

“De-Stalinization” and Stagnation

Khrushchev’s Experiments (1953-1964)

The Soviet system underwent a period of mild relaxation known as “de-Stalinization” or “the thaw.” Until 1964, Nikita Khrushchev led the Soviet Union, transforming it from an impenetrable personal dictatorship to a paternalistic, bureaucratic authoritarian system. This change in the USSR led to some developments in the socialist bloc:

  • Condemnation of Stalinism: In 1956, during the 20th Congress of the CPSU, Stalin’s crimes were denounced and Tito was rehabilitated.
  • Relaxation of Purges: The methods used to achieve and maintain power were softened.
  • “Peaceful Coexistence”: In international politics, Khrushchev formulated the principles of “détente” and “peaceful coexistence.”

These changes had an uneven reception in Eastern Europe:

  • Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania: Their leaders remained staunch Stalinists and were unwilling to cede power or change policies.
  • Czechoslovakia and East Germany: In 1953, following Stalin’s death, strikes and revolts indicated a desire for change.
  • Poland and Hungary: Reforms went further. In Poland, Gomulka assumed leadership in 1956, decreeing religious freedom and the end of collectivization, but remained loyal to Moscow. In Hungary, Nagy’s reforms exceeded the limits acceptable to the USSR, leading to Soviet intervention.

Khrushchev’s economic experiments, which included encouraging consumer goods production and increasing crop yields, were largely unsuccessful and heavily criticized.

Stagnation (1964-1985)

In 1964, the CPSU deposed Khrushchev, ushering in a period of stagnation under Leonid Brezhnev.

Economic Policy

Under central planning, the USSR fell behind the West technologically and productively. The administration was unable to meet the population’s needs, leading to the emergence of a “black economy” and “black market.” These became essential for improving living standards, correcting planning errors, and reducing public protests.

The CPSU

The CPSU was dominated by managers, technicians, and military personnel. The nomenclature, a list of individuals guaranteed career advancement within the party, solidified. The Soviet bureaucracy sought to “depoliticize” citizens. Corruption and nepotism increased.

Eastern Europe

Eastern European countries struggled to balance the needs of their populations with the interests of the USSR. Notable events included:

  • Albania and Romania: Remained staunchly Stalinist and critical of the USSR.
  • East Germany, Hungary, and Bulgaria: Remained loyal to Moscow, focusing on improving their economic systems until the revolutions of 1989. Hungary implemented the most “Western” economic reforms.
  • Poland: The Polish Communist Party faced periodic riots and the rise of a powerful trade union movement, Solidarity, supported by intellectuals, dissidents, and the Catholic Church. Banned in 1981, Solidarity continued to operate underground.
  • Czechoslovakia: In 1968, intellectuals and academics protested, calling for political change and reform of the socialist system. The Warsaw Pact countries intervened, and in August, tanks entered Prague. Husak, the new party leader, faced opposition from the intellectual movement that drafted Charter 77, but remained in power until 1989.

The Case of China

Chinese communism was not a mere imitation of the Soviet model. The evolution of contemporary China can be divided into several stages.

From the Bourgeois Republic to the People’s Republic (1911-1949)

The 1911 revolution aimed to abolish the absolute monarchy and resist Western imperialism. These objectives were part of Sun Yat-Sen’s modernization program, later adopted by the Kuomintang or Nationalist Party (1912). The revolution broke out in October 1911, leading to the founding of the “Republic of China.” However, it faced opposition from dominant social groups. A period of civil war and disintegration of central power followed:

  • The Warlord Era (1911-1928): A chaotic phase dominated by numerous military and feudal lords.
  • The Kuomintang: Created a parallel government and initially allied with the newly formed Chinese Communist Party. Chiang Kai-shek later broke with the communists.
  • Confrontations between Chiang Kai-shek’s Government and the Communists (1928-1937): The Chinese Communist Party made progress as the new Chinese state became a military dictatorship that failed to implement necessary reforms. The Red Army was forced to retreat into the interior of the country during the “Long March” from 1934 to 1936. Mao Zedong transformed the Communist Party into a mass movement with strong roots among the peasantry and implemented a rural-based guerrilla warfare strategy, creating a model for “anti-imperialist revolution.”
  • The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945): This war took place within the framework of World War II. The Kuomintang and the Communists formed a temporary alliance. The Kuomintang‘s main support base was in the cities, which were quickly occupied by the Japanese army.
  • The Second Phase of the Civil War (1945-1949): From 1947, the civil war turned in favor of the communists, who gained widespread support by redistributing land to the peasants. Their superior organization and experience proved decisive. Major cities, under siege, eventually surrendered. The People’s Republic of China was proclaimed in October 1949, and the Nationalist government fled to Taiwan.