The Rise and Fall of Emperor Agustín de Iturbide and the Political Turmoil in Early Mexico
The Rise and Fall of Emperor Agustín de Iturbide
Political Intrigue and the Coronation of an Emperor
Iturbide, recognizing the precarious political landscape and the coalition of Bourbonists and Republicans against him, justified his policies and actions by highlighting:
- Fear of Spanish troops at San Juan de Ulua and Toluca.
- Spain’s refusal to acknowledge the Treaty of Cordoba and Mexican independence.
- Mexico’s unpreparedness for democracy and the unsuitability of a republican system.
Through these arguments, Agustín de Iturbide paved the way for his ascension to power. His political acumen propelled him to the peak of fame, culminating on the night of May 18, 1822, when a sergeant, perhaps driven by personal admiration, rallied the troops and the populace to proclaim Iturbide Emperor. This act of perceived popular will led Congress to declare Agustín de Iturbide the First Emperor of Mexico, with a vote of 65 out of 80 deputies present. He was crowned on July 21, 1822, as Agustín I.
Shifting Alliances and the Spanish Question
Iturbide’s perspective on Spain had undergone a significant transformation, likely driven by self-interest. The Spanish princes and expeditionary forces represented the hopes of his adversaries. Consequently, the once revered Spain of the Plan de Iguala became the author of the ‘ominous yoke’ that had oppressed New Spain for centuries, echoing the sentiments of Hidalgo and other insurgents.
Economic Hardship and Territorial Expansion
His brief reign proved insufficient to dismantle the existing socio-economic order inherited from the colonial period. The economic situation remained dire, trade was in ruins due to severed ties with Spain, and smuggling hindered the recovery of customs revenue. Insecurity plagued the country’s roads. Furthermore, the incorporation of the Captaincy General of Yucatán on September 15, 1821, and the Captaincy General of Guatemala on February 21, 1822, expanded Mexico’s territory to its greatest extent, adding further complexities to its administration.
Financial Crisis and the Seizure of Silver
The economic crisis reached a critical point, leaving no funds to sustain the army or pay civil servants. Domestic remedies were exhausted, and securing loans, either domestically or internationally, proved impossible given the urgency of the situation. In a desperate act, Iturbide resorted to seizing a shipment of silver from merchants at the Fort of Perote, amounting to one million two hundred thousand pesos.
Conflict with Congress and the Rise of Opposition
Throughout his rule, Iturbide faced constant clashes with Congress, which increasingly became a burden on his authority. In August 1822, he ordered the arrest of several congressmen identified as opponents of his regime, sparking protests. In late October 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress, leading to widespread discontent and the emergence of political factions advocating for a federal system and even threatening secession.
The Plan of Casa Mata and the Abdication of Iturbide
In December 1822, Antonio López de Santa Anna launched a republican-leaning conspiracy from Veracruz, proclaiming the Plan of Casa Mata. Driven by personal resentment towards Iturbide, Santa Anna’s movement quickly gained momentum, with the support of former insurgent Guadalupe Victoria. Despite expectations of an easy victory for the imperial forces, the principles of loyalty had been eroded, replaced by opportunistic alliances. Spanish and Republican forces united against the Emperor, with Generals Echávarri and Cortazar joining Santa Anna. They endorsed the Plan of Casa Mata, advocating for national sovereignty, the reinstatement of Congress, and the removal of non-liberal elements, while promising to respect Iturbide’s life.
Faced with this dire situation, Iturbide restored Congress, but the move failed to quell the unrest. On February 23, 1823, he abdicated and pledged to leave Mexican territory. The reinstated Congress ordered his exile and granted him an annual pension of 25 thousand dollars for his services to the nation.
The Aftermath of the First Mexican Empire
Political Instability and the Search for a New Government
Following Iturbide’s downfall, Nicolás Bravo, Guadalupe Victoria, and Pedro Celestino Negrete assumed executive power, with Vicente Guerrero, Miguel Dominguez, and Mariano Michelena serving as alternates. However, the situation deteriorated with uprisings in Real del Monte, Cuernavaca, and Mexico City, though these were swiftly suppressed.
The nation grappled with uncertainty, debating the ideal form of government after the failure of the empire. Two primary factions emerged: Centralists, composed of Spaniards and high-ranking Creoles, and Federalists, inspired by the U.S. model and comprised of republican supporters and former insurgents.
The Dissolution of the Union with Guatemala
The political turmoil contributed to the short-lived union between Guatemala and Mexico. On March 29, 1823, Guatemalan Captain General Vicente Filisola presented a decree approved by the Mexican Congress, granting the United Provinces of Guatemala the freedom to choose their own government. This effectively marked Guatemala’s independence on June 1, 1823. Later, on September 14, 1824, the province of Chiapas, which had initially joined Mexico, rejoined Guatemala.
Querétaro’s Fight for Statehood
Querétaro faced challenges in establishing itself as an independent state within the Federal Republic. Due to perceived ties to the former colonial regime, Republican representatives sought to punish the region. During the 1823 Constituent Assembly, proposals were made to divide Querétaro’s territory among neighboring states. However, Querétaro’s representatives, Dr. Felix Osores Sotomayor, Joaquin Guerra, and General José Moran, successfully argued for their right to statehood, citing their economic significance and population.
Centralization of Financial Management
Recognizing the importance of revenue administration, Congress enacted a constitutional law on November 16, 1824, centralizing financial management under the Secretary of Finance, abolishing the previous system of revenue and accounts offices.