The Rise and Fall of Empires: Europe’s Transformation After World War I
German Foreign Policy and the Road to War
Bismarck’s Era and the Isolation of France
Otto von Bismarck’s primary focus was isolating France diplomatically. He achieved this by creating a system of alliances, most notably the League of the Three Emperors, which included Austria-Hungary and Russia.
Wilhelm II and Global Politics
Following Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890, Wilhelm II shifted Germany’s focus towards global politics. His ambition was to establish a colonial empire comparable to those of Great Britain and France, leading to increased competition for resources and markets.
The Colonial Crisis: Morocco and the Balkans
Morocco
In 1905, Wilhelm II’s visit to Tangier and his declaration of support for Moroccan independence sparked the First Moroccan Crisis. The Algeciras Conference subsequently recognized Spain’s holdings in the Rif region and France’s claims to a protectorate over Morocco. The Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911 resulted in Germany gaining territory in Central Africa at the expense of French Congo, further escalating tensions between France and Germany and strengthening the Anglo-French alliance.
The Balkans
The Balkan region, under Ottoman rule since the 16th century, became a hotbed of conflict. Several key rivalries fueled these tensions:
- Austria-Hungary sought to control the Balkan region as its primary market, while Russia aimed to secure access to the Mediterranean Sea through the Dardanelles.
- Serbia, with Russian support, aimed to unite all South Slavs under one state, clashing with Austria-Hungary’s control over Bosnia-Herzegovina.
The Outbreak of World War I
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in 1914 triggered the war. Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia and launched an attack on July 28th. Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, leading to declarations of war between the major European powers. Great Britain joined the conflict soon after, marking the beginning of World War I.
The Course of the War
Alliances and Participants
Germany and Austria-Hungary, initially with superior military preparedness and strategic positioning, formed the Central Powers, later joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. The opposing alliance, the Entente, consisted of France, Britain, and Russia, with a combined population twice that of the Central Powers. Over time, Japan, Greece, Romania, and Italy joined the Entente, while Spain, the Netherlands, Scandinavian countries, and Switzerland remained neutral.
A New Kind of Warfare
World War I introduced new forms of warfare, including total mobilization of human and economic resources, government-directed economic planning, and the use of new technologies such as shrapnel, grenades, airplanes, and dirigibles.
The War’s Aftermath and Post-War Challenges
Economic and Demographic Consequences
. As for the cost demografico lost between 9 and 10 million men were also wounded, orphans, widows and there was a decline in population. Lower birth rate and increasing mortality. Regarding the economy, France is destroyed 200 thousand homes and many acres of crops. Industrial regions suffer a crisis of underproduction. There is a destruction of the rail network and transport, scarce raw materials, food, labor, etc. .. In 1918 the financial situation was delicate in € and U.S. borrow. There was a big inflation. Japan and the United States become creditors of € countries. There were political problems: Democracies do not work correctly because it lacked firm foundations. Universal suffrage extends and generalises the right to vote for women. Strikes affecting transport, industry and agriculture. 8h is set for week lavoral and women’s liberation movement achieved great importance.
The other peace treaties: The consequences of defeat suffered tb the other countries: The Austro-Hungarian empire disappears, Austria lost the Slavic territories in the treaty of Saint-Germain and Hungary remains locked by the Treaty of Trianon. Romania expanding its borders. The Ottoman Empire: After the treaty of Sevres, loses € territories except Thrace and eastern Istanbul. Bulgaria: By treaty agreements Neuily loses its landlocked. I find new independent countries: Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and the Baltic states q formed a cordon sanitaire against the USSR. Clashes occur between Poland and USSR.
The Locarno Pact: In 1925 following the tensions caused by the peace treaties were signed after the war, the representatives of France, Germany, UK, Belgium and Italy held a conference in Locarno in the agreement is signed q initiative German G. Stresemann and Briand French. This covenant Germany accepts the delineation of the borders with Belgium and France and this promises to evacuate the Ruhr area was signed by French and German acceptance of the terms of the Dawes plan. Its purpose was to facilitate the payment of German war reparations introducing North American capital.
The spirit of Locarno: The aim was to ensure peace and security of states. It opens an era of detente q caused the entry of Germany into the society of nations led by Briand. This got accepted Kellogg signed with France the Kellogg Briand Pact q was accepted by many countries. In central and the € Valcanes q countries agreed to treaties such as Poland, Romania … Q As countries disagreed as Hungary etc. .. They have some border issues